is concerned primarily with the relationship between psychological processes and the underlying physiological events—or, in other words, the mind-body phenomenon.

specialized cells that can receive and transmit chemical or electrical signals

cells that provide support functions for the neurons by playing an information processing role that is complementary to neurons

a process that extends far away from the soma and carries important signals called action potentials to other neurons (splits several times to communicate with many neurons)

processes that extend outward from the soma and branch several times ; receives information

insulates the axon allowing the signal to travel rapidly to another

The cell body

at the end of an axon; forms synapses with spines on the dendrites of neurons: The neuron sending the signal forms a presynaptic terminal button. The neuron receiving forms a post-synaptic terminal button.

where the axon of one cell is in close contact with the dendrite of another

the small space between the terminal buttons

Receives information about the world around us:

The neuron that can initiate movement and behavior:

Goes between the sensory and motor neurons; processes sensory information, plan the appropriate response, and connect to the motor neurons

Has one dendrite

Has two dendrites

Has three or more dendrites

chemicals that travel across a synaptic gap

When neurons are not transmitting information:

counteract each other to keep things steady when the neurons are not transmitting info

The electrical current sent when neurons are communicating

Is activated when the threshold of excitation is reached

A depolarizing current that causes the membrane potential to become more positive and closer to the threshold of excitation

A hyperpolarizing current that causes the membrane potential to become more negative and further away from the threshold of excitation

Detects electrical activity

Detects blood flow

includes your brain and spinal cord

all the nerves that branch out from the Central Nervous System

responsible for the neural functions that keep us alive: breathing, heartrate, digestion, sleep-wake cycle

includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Together they support vital bodily processes.

Parts of _______________________ include medulla, pons, midbrain, and diencephalon (which consists of thalamus and hypothalamus).

Involves movement and posture, also language, possibly

It is made up of many small groups of neurons that help to relay and integrate signals between the spinal cord and cortex.

Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

relay area for organizing incoming signals to the cortex & outgoing signals to body

regulation of hormones (endocrine system) and of the autonomic nervous system

involved in strong emotion/memory

spatial memory; formation of new long-term memories

responsible for cognitive abilities and conscious thought

responsible for vision

responsible for vision, auditory processing, memory, and multisensory integration

houses the somatosensory cortex (body sensations) and structures involved in visual attention and multisensory convergence

houses the motor cortex (voluntary movement) and structures involved in motor planning, language, judgment, and decision-making; is larger in humans than other animals

Primary auditory Cortex

Somatosensory Cortex

Primary Visual Cortex:

Motor Cortex:

a dense bundle of white matter tracts that connects the cerebral hemispheres

includes the amygdala and hippocampal formation, Involved in emotion, including aversion and gratification

a fold in the cerebral cortex

is involved in the expressive aspects of spoken and written language (production of sentences constrained by the rules of grammar and syntax)

body receptors responding to physical stimulus energy and carrying that information to the Central Nervous System

the process of integrating, organizing and interpreting sensory signals, occurs in the brain

smallest possible stimulus strength that can be detected

the process of converting physical energy into a neural signal

specialized neuron that converts physical energy into a neural signal

the tendency for a sensory neuron’s firing rate to decrease when exposed to a constant stimulus

What type of stimulus energy is used in the visual system?

What are the two types of photoreceptors?

sensitive to wavelength (perceived as color)

sensitive to light levels (perceived as brightness)

tough membrane surrounding eyeball, transparent over pupil area (“sclera” where opaque)

opening in middle of iris where light passes through

changes shape to focus light rays on retina

colored sphincter muscle that controls how much light enters eye

controls the shape of the lens during accommodation

thin, light sensitive membrane at back of eye that contains photoreceptor

area of retina that has mostly cones, greatest visual acuity

location on retina where optic nerve exits for brain,

Responsible for the blind spot

leads from retina to the LGN of the thalamus

Light stimulus energy is focused by the cornea and lens to project an image on the retina. Transduction occurs in the photoreceptors and neural signals are transmitted (sensation) to the thalamus, then to the visual cortex where perception is processed and we “see” the image.

What is the stimulus energy of the auditory system?

Transducers of the auditory system:

______________________ of sound wave energy determines perception of highness or lowness of tones: pitch

______________________ of sound wave energy determines perception of intensity of sound: loudness

Various sound wave frequencies and amplitudes together determine perception of complexity of sounds:

helps to direct sound waves into ear canal

Ear canal

Also known as the eardrum -vibrates from sound waves

small bones in the ear that amplify sound wave energy

The three small bones in the ear. Also known as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup

membrane on the cochlea connected to the stapes; converts vibrations of the ossicles into vibration of fluid inside cochlea

a spiral shaped organ that comprises the inner ear and contains the vestibular apparatus and the hair cells that transduce auditory information

> filled with fluid; membranes separate it into 3 chambers

runs the length of the cochlea

groups of hair cells imbedded in the basilar membrane, covered by tectorial membrane

transducers with dendrites called stereocilia

carries auditory signals to brainstem

Changes in air pressure (sound waves, the stimulus energy) vibrate the outer, middle, and inner ear components, eventually vibrating the basilar membrane. The basilar membrane vibration bends the stereocilia on the hair cells. The bending of the stereocilia leads to ion flow and a change in the electrical potential within the cell. The auditory nerve carries the signal information to the brainstem (sensation), and then the information is transmitted via the thalamus, to the auditory cortex where perception is processed and we “hear” the sound stimulus.

What is the stimulus energy of the olfactory system?

Transducers of the olfactory system:

What is the stimulus of the gustatory system?

Transducers of the gustatory system:

The 5 basic taste modalities:

Transduction occurs as chemical molecules (stimulus) bind to olfactory or taste receptors, transduction occurs and the information is transmitted via cranial nerves (sensation) to the frontal lobe (smell) and insula (taste) of the brain where perception is processed and we “smell” or “taste” the chemical molecules. (Two answers)

Stimuli for the Somesthesis system:

various sensory receptors sensitive to pressure, vibration, stretch, stroking, fluttering stimuli (touch)

sensory receptors sensitive to cool, warm, or hot stimuli (temperature)

free nerve endings, sensitive to sharp, prickling, burning, freezing or otherwise extreme stimuli (pain)

several receptor types sensitive to limb position & movement; muscle length, stretch, & contraction; joint angle, and excess stretch or force on muscle, tendons, ligaments & membranes (kinesthesia and proprioception)How we detect bodily sensations: Transduction occurs in the various sensory receptors affected by both internal and external

stimulus energy, then the information is transmitted (sensation) via the thalamus to the brainstem and somatosensory cortex where perception is processed and we “feel” our various bodily sensations.

What is the stimulus of the vestibular system?

Transducers of the vestibular system:

Change in body position relative to gravity causes fluid to move in the semicircular canals (stimulus), transduction occurs in the vestibular hair cells and the information is transmitted via the vestibular nerve to the brain stem (sensation). Perception of vestibular information is unconscious.

mental process of integrating & organizing sensory information into meaningful patterns

perceived size of object remains constant despite changes in the size of the retinal image

perceived shape of object remains constant despite changes in the shape of the retinal image

based on the Law of Pragnanz; we tend to perceive most stimuli as simple forms

is based on the concept that the whole of perception is greater than the sum of the sensory bits of information in a stimulus

part of a stimulus is perceived to stand out as an object, against a less prominent background

stimuli that are near to each other tend to be perceived as group/unit

stimuli that are similar in size, shape, color, or texture tend to be perceived as a group/unit

tendency to group objects that appear to follow in the same direction as a single unit or figure

we tend to perceive stimuli as complete figures with consistent overall form

the ability to perceive 3 dimensional space and to judge distances

tendency to perceive reality from a particular frame of reference

Monocular depth cues:

Binocular depth cues

Perceptual sets (schema):