Its size led to the development of a (a)   variety of cultures over its history.

Africa's (a)   is immensely varied.

It contains a wide range of climates, (a)   , and terrains.

Africa's vegetation regions create wide bands that stretch across the (a)   .

Along the (a)   is a band of tropical rain forest.

Moving north and south from this band are the continent's largest and most (a)   regions, the savannas, or grassy plains.

Beyond the savanna to the north lies the (a)   , the largest desert in the world.

Although the Sahara did become a highway for migration and trade, its size and harsh terrain (a)   movement.

The (a)   deserts in the south are smaller but equally forbidding

Along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa and the tip of southern Africa lie areas of (a)   farmland.

The fertile Nile Valley, for example, offered a favorable environment to early (a)   .

In addition to deserts and rain forests, other geographic features have acted as (a)   to easy movement of people and goods.

Although Africa is surrounded by oceans and seas, it has few good natural (a)   .

Also, much of the interior is a high (a)   .

As rivers flow down to the coast, they cascade through a series of rapids and (a)   , or waterfalls, that hinder travel between the coast and the interior.

Within the interior, though the same rivers, including

the (a)   , serve as open

highways.

Despite geographic barriers, people did (a)   , both within Africa and to neighboring continents.

Like the rivers, the Great Rift Valley of East Africa served as an interior (a)   .

People also traveled across the (a)   lands.

The (a)   and Indian Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North Africa formed the southern rim of the Mediterranean world.

The Red Sea and (a)   linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North Africa formed the southern rim of the Mediterranean world.

The Red Sea and Indian Ocean linked (a)   to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North Africa formed the southern rim of the Mediterranean world.

The Red Sea and Indian Ocean linked East Africa to the (a)   and other Asian lands, while North Africa formed the southern rim of the Mediterranean world.

The Red Sea and Indian Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other (a)   , while North Africa formed the southern rim of the Mediterranean world.

The Red Sea and Indian Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while (a)   formed the southern rim of the Mediterranean world.

The Red Sea and Indian Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North Africa formed the (a)   rim of the Mediterranean world.

The Red Sea and Indian Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North Africa formed the southern rim of the (a)   world.

Africa sits atop great (a)   and other natural resources.

Since ancient times, mineral wealth spurred (a)   among various regions.

(a)   , gold, iron, and copper were important items in early trade networks.

Salt, (a)   , iron, and copper were important

items in early trade networks.

Salt, gold, (a)   , and copper were important

items in early trade networks.

Salt, gold, iron, and (a)   were important

items in early trade networks.

Much later, in the (a)   , desire for gold and diamonds was one cause that led Europeans to seek control of lands in Africa.

Much later, in the 1800s, desire for gold and (a)   was one cause that led Europeans to seek control of lands in Africa.

Much later, in the 1800s, desire for gold and diamonds was one cause that led (a)   to seek control of lands in Africa.

Trade between Africa and Asia increased with the introduction of the (a)   .

By A.D. 200, camels had been brought to North Africa from (a)   .

These hardy " (a)   " revolutionized trade across the Sahara.

Although daring traders had earlier made the difficult desert crossing in horse-drawn chariots, camel (a)   created new trade networks.

Camels could carry loads of up to (a)   pounds and could plod 20 or 30 miles a day, often without water.

Camels could carry loads of up to 500 pounds and

could (a)   20 or 30 miles a day, often without water.

The caravan brought great (a)   to merchants on

both sides of the Sahara.

(a)   have uncovered evidence that points

to the Great Rift Valley as home to some of the

earliest ancestors of modern people.

Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that points

to the (a)   as home to some of the

earliest ancestors of modern people.

Gradually, their (a)   migrated out of Africa and beyond to populate every corner of the Earth.

In Africa, as elsewhere, (a)   people developed skills as hunters and food gatherers.

By 5500 BC (a)   had learned to cultivate the Nile Valley and to domesticate animals.

As farming spread across North Africa, Neolithic villages even appeared in the Sahara, which was (a)   a well-watered area.

Scientists have found ancient rock paintings that

show a (a)   covered with rich grasslands and

savanna.

About 2500 B.C., a (a)   slowly dried the Sahara.

As the land became (a)   , the desert spread.

This process of (a)   devoured thousands of acres of cropland and pastureland.

The ever-expanding desert forced many people to move,

or (a)   , to seek new areas in order to maintain

their ways of life.

Over thousands of years, the migration of people throughout Africa contributed to the continent's rich diversity of (a)   .

Scholars have traced these migrations by studying (a)   patterns.

They have learned, for example, that West African (a)   migrated to the south and east between about 1000 B.C. and A.D 1000.

Like the (a)   peoples of Europe and Asia, these West African peoples spoke a variety of languages deriving from a single common language.

The root language is called Bantu, which gives this movement, its name—the (a)   migrations.

As the Bantu-speakers migrated into (a)   Africa, they spread their skills in farming, ironworking, and domesticating animals.

As the Bantu-speakers migrated into southern Africa, they spread their skills in (a)   , ironworking, and domesticating animals.

As the Bantu-speakers migrated into southern Africa, they spread their skills in farming, (a)   , and domesticating animals.

As the Bantu-speakers migrated into southern Africa, they spread their skills in farming, ironworking, and (a)   animals.

Some existing cultures merged with those of the (a)   -

speakers wherever they settled.

The influence of the Bantu-speakers is still found in the (a)   of the region today.

While Egyptian civilization was developing along the northern Nile River, another African civilization took shape on a ribbon of (a)   land along the southern Nile.

The ancient kingdom of (a)   , also called Kush, was located in present-day Sudan.

The ancient kingdom of Nubia, also called (a)   , was located in present-day Sudan.

The ancient kingdom of Nubia, also called Kush, was located in present-day (a)   .

Archaeologists and historians have just begun to document the shifting tides of (a)   's 4,000-year history.

From time to time, ambitious Egyptian pharaohs (a)   Nubia, but the Nubians always regained their independence.

As a result of (a)   , Nubian rulers adopted many Egyptian traditions.

They built palaces and (a)   modeled on Egyptian style.

They used Egyptian titles and worshiped Egyptian (a)   .

About (a)   BC., the Nubian king Piankhi (PYAHN kee) conquered Egypt.

For a century, (a)   kings ruled Egypt.

But Nubian armies could not match the iron weapons of the (a)   who invaded from southwest Asia.

Forced to retreat from Egypt, the Nubians returned to the (a)   .

By 500 B.C., Nubian rulers had moved their capital from (a)   to Meroe (MEHR uh wee).

Meroé eventually commanded both the Nile's north-south trade route and the east-west trade route from the (a)   to Central Africa.

Along this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, (a)   , animal skins, perfumes, and enslaved people to the Mediterranean world and Southwest Asia.

Along this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, (a)   , and enslaved people to the Mediterranean world and Southwest Asia.

Along this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, perfumes, and (a)   people to the Mediterranean world and Southwest Asia.

Along this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, perfumes, and enslaved people to the (a)   world and Southwest Asia.

Along this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, perfumes, and enslaved people to the Mediterranean world and (a)   .

Meroe's location helped make it a successful center of (a)   .

Equally important, however, were the region's

(a)   .

Meroe was rich in (a)   ore.

Fueled by the region's large quantities of (a)   , the smelting furnaces of Meroé produced the iron tools and weaponry needed to feed, control, and defend the kingdom.

Fueled by the region's large quantities of timber, the (a)   furnaces of Meroé produced the iron tools and weaponry needed to feed, control, and defend the kingdom.

Fueled by the region's large quantities of timber, the smelting furnaces of Meroé produced the iron tools and (a)   needed to feed, control, and defend the kingdom.

Today, giant heaps of iron waste remain as evidence of ancient Meroe's (a)   .

Although Nubia absorbed much from (a)   , Nubian culture later followed its own course.

For example, after gaining independence from Egypt, Nubians worshiped their own gods, including Apedemak, a (a)   .

At Meroe, (a)   styles reflected a greater sense of freedom than Egyptian styles did.

Nubians also created their own system of writing, using an alphabet instead of (a)   .

Unfortunately, the Nubian language is still not fully (a)   .

After the joint reign of King Natakamani and Queen Amanitere in the first century A.D., the splendor of Nubia's (a)   dimmed.

Finally, about A.D. (a)   , King Ezana's armies from the kingdom of Pocum overwhelmed Nubia.

Early African civilizations had strong ties to the (a)   world.

Trade linked Egypt with (a)   .

Later, Egypt was ruled, in turn, by the Greeks and (a)   .

These powers also knew of the rich civilization that lay south of Egypt and valued (a)   exports.

Over time, however, Nubia lost touch with the (a)   world.

As Nubia thrived along the Nile, (a)   began to rise as a great North African power.

Founded by (a)   traders as a port on the Mediterranean coast, Carthage came to dominate trade in the western Mediterranean.

From 800 B.C. to 146 B.C., Carthage forged an empire that stretched from present-day (a)   and beyond.

As Rome expanded, territorial and trade (a)   erupted between the two powers.

After a series of fierce wars, Rome eventually defeated Carthage and totally destroyed the (a)   .

Rome expanded its rule over much of North Africa from the coast to the (a)   and into Egypt.

There, the Romans built roads, dams, (a)   , and cities.

They developed North African farmlands to harvest (a)   crops of grain, fruit, and other foods.

From North Africa, they imported lions and other fierce animals to Rome to do battle with (a)   .

North Africa also provided soldiers for the Roman army, including (a)   , who would later become a Roman emperor.

Under Roman rule, (a)   spread to the cities of North Africa.

In fact, (a)   , the most influential Christian thinker of the late Roman empire, was born in present-day Algeria.

From A.D. 395 to AD. 430, Augustine was (a)   of Hippo, a

city located near the ruins of ancient Carthage.

In the 690s, (a)   conquered and occupied the cities of North Africa.

By the early 700s, they had successfully conquered the (a)   , a largely nomadic North African people.

Islam also spread peacefully as, over time, Muslim (a)   from North Africa carried Islam into West Africa.

Muslim civilization blossomed in cities such as Cairo, Fez, and Marrakesh, which became famous for their (a)   and universities.

Muslim, Jewish, and Christian traders and merchants lived, (a)   , and interacted with one another as commerce expanded throughout North and West Africa.

Jewish communities formed near Muslim and Christian (a)   across North Africa.

Some West African societies adopted Islam into their cultures, creating African varieties of Islam, while many Africans continued to practice traditional religions such as (a)   .

Islam eventually became the (a)   religion in many regions of Africa, and Muslim rulers governed many African kingdoms.

These rulers established (a)   systems of government and a vast trade network to India and China, which allowed the movement of goods into and out of Africa to flourish.

These rulers established centralized systems of government and a (a)   , which allowed the movement of goods into and out of Africa to flourish.