Water molecules are polar.

Polar means...

Protons and neutrons determine an atom's...

Most hydrogen atoms have...

Hydrogen atoms are the only atom that can exist without neutrons.

Covalent bonds

Ionic bonds

Ions

Hydrogen bonds - hydrogen end of one molecule is attracted to the opposite charge of a neighboring polar molecule.

Bonds form between

Cohesion

Neighboring water molecules sticking together gives water a high

Uneven distribution of charge

Capillary action is formed from

The attraction between molecules of different substances

The amount of energy required to raise a substance's temperature by making its molecules move faster

The____the_____, the ___energy it takes to change the temperature of that substance

Water has a high heat capacity.

Water expands when it freezes.

Water's polarity gives it the ability to dissolve both ionic compounds and other polar molecules. This is called the_____.

Water can dissolve other polar substances.

Similar substances can interact with one another but different substances cannot.

Acids have a

Bases have a

What measures hydrogen ion concentration/acidity?

Acids and bases neutralize one another.

Our bodies need ____oxygen for more energy, which leads to ___carbon dioxide production.

In order to maintain homeostasis, our blood must keep a pH between

A very weak acid or base that helps to prevent the fluctuation of pH (ex: bicarbonate)

Buffers help

Molecules of life that all living things need

Bonds can be made by

Oxygen can make

____can make covalent bonds between hydrogen molecules.

Every single carbon should make 4 bonds,

The more bonds between atoms, the stronger the bond and the harder it is to break.

Contains carbon

Large organic molecules found in living things

One piece

Many pieces

Monomers link together to form polymers.

Polymers made of nucleotide monomers

All nucleotide groups will have a phosphate group on the end.

There are ____different nucleotides. The difference between them is the_______.

Sugar for Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Sugar for ribonucleic acid (RNA)

RNA is

DNA is

Used by living things as a source of energy and for structural purposes

Building block of carbohydrates

Monomer

Polymer

Monosaccharide=Single Sugar

Carbohydrates are used for

Glucose is easy to break down and produces energy while fructose is hard to break down and uses some energy.

Disaccharide=2 sugar rings attached

Polysaccharide

Plants make____in photosynthesis.

Used for long-term energy

Three fatty acid chains

In a saturated fat, all carbons have __Hydrogen molecules.

Building blocks of lipids

Lipids are nonpolar because of carbon bonds so they are insolulable in water.

Water has a polar covalent bond.

Cholesterol is a

Saturated fats have____bonds.

Unsaturated fats are created when carbon bonds are not filled with hydrogens.

Unsaturated fats are healthier than saturated fats.

Lipids work as

Saturated fats have carbons that are each filled with 2 Hydrogen atoms, while Unsaturated fats have 2 carbons that are double-bonded together.

Saturated fats are

Unsaturated fats are

Polymers made of amino acid monomers

Molecules that join together to form proteins

There are only __different amino acids to make all proteins.

We need to get some amino acids from our diets.

There is an NH2 on every amino acid. NH2 is

Variable groups are different for every amino acid.

Hold amino acids together

Proteins are polypeptides.

A functional molecule built from one or more polypeptides

The shape of a protein is critical to protein function (determined by order of amino acids).

Proteins

Changes one set of chemicals into another

The elements or compounds that engage in a chemical reaction

The elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction

Proteins with specific 3-D shapes that increase the rate of a chemical reaction (catalyst)

Area on an enzyme where a substrate binds/breaks down (is typically specific to just one substrate)

Molecule enzyme acts upon

Substrate and enzyme have to match up

Enzyme names typically end in ___. The rest of the name usually tells what the job is.

Factors affecting enzymes include_____and_____. If these factors are extreme, the enzyme can be denatured (changed shape) and can be deactivated.

Activation energy is put into energy. Enzymes lower activation energy and speed up chemical reactions in cells.

The shape of the active site might not be the exact shape of the substrate (changes shape in presence of substrate; substrate will then fit into active site to form)

When enzyme and substrate combine together

As carbon dioxide increases, it and anhydrase combine two substrates together to create____.

Compound Light Microscopes

Dissections Microscope (like the compound microscope)

Electron microscopes can help someone see things smaller that cannot be seen with light.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

First person to see tiny organisms in pond water (thought they were small animals so called them animalcules)

First to name cells (got name from regular dhaped wooden corks)

The experiments of German scientists____and____ (as well as some others) led to the development of the cell theory (looked at plant and animal structures).

Cell theory

Prokaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells

Both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells have

In a eukaryotic cell, DNA is stored inside the nucleus and it never leaves there.

The outer boundary that covers the cell (a layer of protection)

The cell membrane allows for the movement of ____in and out of the cell. It helps keep the organelles inside, too.

The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer. How is it described?

Typically found in a prokaryotic cell; plant cells, fungi, bacteria, and some protists have this (not animal cells)

Cell Wall

Cilia and flagella are mostly used by unicellular organisms for____(move a cell from one place to another).

Short, hair-like projections (move like the oars of a boat)

Longer projections that move with a whip-like motion (usually organisms will only have one or two)

Cytoskeleton

Centrioles are made up of microtubules and help the cell___.

Cytoplasm

The control center of the cell (contains DNA that allows it to do this)

Chromatin

Where ribosomes are made

Ribosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum

After production in the endoplasmic reticulum, proteins are transferred to the______.

Golgi Apparatus

Vacuoles

Lysosomes

Chloroplasts

Autotrophs

Heterotrophs

Mitochondria

Cell Membrane

Mainly attached to the cell membrane and helps the cell move

Membrane-bound proteins are embedded in the cell membrane and are____, which help get big molecules like carbohydrates, amino acids, and glucose, across the membrane.

The model of the plasma membrane is called the____. The components of this membrane move within the membrane as water molecules do a current. Within the cell membrane are proteins and cholesterol molecules, floating around like boast on the water.

______are selectively permeable, meaning they allow some molecules to go in and out of the cell but keep others from doing so.

Even though cell membranes regulate which molecules can pass through, it does not limit the_____.

Water_____and goes through a channel, not by lipid tails.

The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration

Water always moves to reach an_____.

The diffusion of water (goes from an area with a lot of water to one with little) across a semipermeable membrane

Higher concentration of solute outside the cell than inside it

When a cell is in a hypertonic solution, water particles ____ the cell, causing it to _____.

Lower concentration of solute outside the cell than inside it

When a cell is in a hypotonic solution, water particles____ the cell, causing it to_____.

Equal concentration of solute inside and outside the cell

When a cell is in an isotonic state, water will enter and leave the cell equally, causing the cell to stay the same size and shape.

If a cell uses no energy to pass particles across its membranes, this is an example of______.

Passive transport allows the movement of substances to be___the concentration gradient.

______uses transport proteins to move materials across membranes. For instance, charged particles or large molecules need to be moved, so channel proteins form tunnels. Then, carrier proteins change shape to allow certain substances to pass through.

Cells must use energy to move particles from a lower concentration to a higher concentration. This kind of movement is called_______.

A______binds with a particle of substance to be transported. These are specific to the type of substance being transported.

When the proper molecule binds with the protein, ____energy allows the cell to change the shape of the carrier protein so that the particle is released on the other side. Once the particle is removed, the protein restores its original shape. This goes____the concentration gradient (low to high).

The process by which a cell surrounds and takes in material from its environment. Commonly seen with unicellular organisms, such as amoebae. (Ex: material is engulfed by a portion of membrane, and the membrane becomes a vacuole with its contents inside the cell)

Expelling something, liek waste, out of the cell; the expulsion or secretion of materials from a cell (Ex: used to excrete waste, secrete substances like hormones, etc.)

One of the most important compounds that cells use to store and release energy

Energy is stored in _____.

When a phosphate breaks off, it releases energy and turns into___.

ADP has two phospate groups instead of three (still has some energy in it).

When a cell has energy available, it can store small amounts of it by adding phosphate groups to___molecules, producing___. This process occurs in the___. ATP is released into the cytoplasm.

Cells must produce ATP. This is done in_______ by breaking the bonds in a glucose molecule.

In_____, plants convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of carbohydrates.

Plants and animal cells both do cellular respiration.

____energy from the sun must be captured for photosynthesis to occur. Sunlight is "____" light, actually a mixture of different wavelengths.

Photosynthetic organisms capture energy from sunlight with pigments, principally with______. This pigment absorbs every color but green and is the most efficient pigment for performing photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis takes place inside_____using pigments like chlorophyll to capture energy.

Membranes with pigments for capturing light

Stacks of thylakoids

The pigments in chloroplasts are membrane-bound proteins.

Open space for chemical reactions

Photosynthesis involves two sets of reactions

Light-dependent reactions happen within the____.

Light-independent reactions occur within the____through a series of chemical reactions. Starting materials are recycled through these reactions.

NADPH -(like a connection between light-dependent and light-independent reactions) What is it called?

The high-energy electrons produced by chlorophyll are highly reactive and require a special "carrier" to move them from point A to B.

A compound that can accept a pair of high-energy electrons and transfer them, along with most of their energy, to another molecule

____can carry the high-energy electrons that were produced by light absorption in chlorophyll to chemical reactions elsewhere in the cell.

Photosynthesis takes____and____, or low-energy reactants, and uses the energy of____ to convert them into high-energy sugars and oxygen (products).

Light-independent reactions uses___and____molecules produced in the light-dependent reactions to produce high-energy sugars from CO2.

Light-dependent reactions require the direct involvement of light and light-absorbing pigments.

$$6Co_2+6H_2O\rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6+6O_2$$

NADPH and ATP (with the help of enzymes) drive the Calvin Cycle.

Light-dependent and light-independent reactions have an interdependent relationship (drives reactions).

Use energy from sunlight to split water molecule and produce ATP, NADPH, and oxygen.

Thylakoids contain clusters of chlorophyll and membrane-bound proteins known as____. Light-dependent reactions happen here because the pigments are embedded in the membranes of the thylakoids.

Light-dependent reactions use___and___ energy to produce oxygen gas and convert ADP and NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH.

1st step of photosynthesis-absorbs sunlight, and splits water molecule and releases H+ ions and oxygen. (high-energy electrons are produced)

(2nd step in Photosystem II) A series of membrane-bound proteins that pass high-energy electrons from one protein to the next during ATP-generating reactions (after each pass, the electrons lose some energy)

(3rd steps) Takes electrons and reenergizes them; Second electron transport chain transfers electrons to NADP+, producing NADPHPhotosystem II

(Last steps) The difference in both charge and H+ ion concentration across the membrane provides the energy to make ATP; ATP synthase spins around, creating energy, adds on an ion, and makes ATP.

Important factor that affect photosynthesis

$$6O_2+C_6H_{12}O_6\rightarrow6CO_2+6H_2O$$

Cellular respiration is used to access chemical energy stored in the chemical bonds of the food we eat.

A process of energy conversion that releases energy from food in the prescence of oxygen (the cell uses inhaled oxygen to break down sugars in food)

In cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen are the____, while carbon dioxide, water, and energy, are the____.

Cellular respiration takes place in the_____.

Glycolysis

The Krebs Cycle

Electron Transport Chain

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration can be thought of as opposite processes

(Animals need glucose and oxygen, which are the reactants for cellular respiration and the products of photosynthesis, while plants need water, carbon dioxide, and energy, which are the reactants of photosynthesis and the products of cellular respiration.)

During glycolysis, one molecule of glucose is converted to two molecules of____.

Net gain in glycolysis

In the Krebs cycle, electron carriers are made. _____is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reaction by breaking chemical bonds. _____from glycolysis is used to make ATP, NADH, and FADH2, with carbon dioxide as a by-product.

Pyruvic acid from glycolysis passes through the two membranes of the mitochondrian and into the matrix. A carbon molecule breaks off and another electron carrier is made and is turned into____.

NADH captures energized electrons and carries them to the transport chain.

______adds the 2-carbon acetyl group to a 4-carbon molecule already present, producing a 6-carbon molecule called_____.

Citric acid is broken down into a 4-carbon molecule, more ___is released, and electrons are transferred to electron carriers.

For each turn of the cycle, a molecule of ADP is converted to a molecule of____.

Net gain of Krebs Cycle

At five place in the cycle, electron carriers accept a pair of high-energy electrons, and NAD+ and FAD are converted to NADH and FADH2.

Electron Transport Chain

Select all of the processes that are aerobic

In the Electron Transport Chain, oxygen is...

Cells use a process known as____to produce ATP.

Net gain of ETC

Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain release about__molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose (range:30-42).

In the absence of oxygen, ____releases energy from food molecule, producing ATP. This is an anaerobic process and it starts with the glucose molecule (glycolysis).

Alcoholic fermention produces

Lactic Acid Fermentation produces

Alcoholic fermentation occurs in____, while Lactic acid fermentation occurs in_____.

Both alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation happen in the____.

$$Pyruvic\ acid+NADH\rightarrow Alcohol+CO_2+NAD^+$$

$$Pyruvic\ acid\ +\ NADH\rightarrow Lactic\ acid\ +\ NAD^+$$

____builds up in your body after intense exercise and causes muscle fatigue.

For short, quick bursts of energy, the body uses ATP already present in muscles as well as ATP made by_______.

For exercise longer than about 90 seconds, ____ is the only way to continue generating a supply of ATP.