the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance

a system that can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not matter

the transfer of heat energy through matter from particle to particle; most effective in solids

the transfer of heat energy in gases or liquids due to density differences

potential energy stored as a result of deformation of an elastic object, such as the stretching of a spring

the type of energy which comes from electromagnetic waves

any process which requires or absorbs energy from its surroundings, usually in the form of heat

a process or reaction that releases energy from the system to its surroundings, usually in the form of heat, but also in a form of light, electricity, or sound

the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. It is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of this states that it can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed.

a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system's thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system

a system that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings

a process in nuclear physics in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei as fission products, and usually some byproduct particles

the potential energy a physical object with mass has in relation to another massive object due to gravity

the energy an object possesses due to its motion

the quantity of energy stored or transferred by thermal vibrations of molecules

the sum of kinetic and potential energy in an object that is used to do work. In other words, it is energy in an object due to its motion or position, or both

comes from splitting atoms in a reactor to heat water into steam, turn a turbine and generate electricity

the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors

the rest of the universe that interacts with the system

the part of the universe being studied

the average vibrational energy of all molecules within the system; the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, especially as expressed according to a comparative scale and shown by a thermometer or perceived by touch

a force applied to an object over a certain distance

A type of system that can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings

the positively charged electrode by which the electrons leave a device

a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars

the electrode of an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs

a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemicallystable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment

the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move

the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move

a solid electric conductor that carries electric current into non-metallic solids, or liquids, or gases, or plasmas, or vacuums. Electrodes are typically good electric conductors, but they need not be metals.

a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent

a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy

loss of electrons

a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Redox reactions are characterized by the actual or formal transfer of electrons between chemical species, most often with one species undergoing oxidation while another species undergoes reduction.

gain of electrons

a tube containing an electrolyte (typically in the form of a gel), providing electrical contact between two solutions

an electrochemical cell that uses a chemical reaction to produce electrical energy

radiation you are exposed to from natural sources

the minimum energy required to disassemble a system of particles into separate parts

a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon.

minimum amount of fissionable isotope needed to sustain the chain reaction

a device that measures dose uptake of external ionizing radiation. It is worn by the person being monitored when used as a personal dosimeter, and is a record of the radiation dose received

a subatomic particle, symbol e − or β − , whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge

an early scientific instrument used to detect the presence of electric charge on a body. It detects charge by the movement of a test object due to the Coulomb electrostatic force on it

an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. Also known as a Geiger–Muller counter (or Geiger–Müller counter), it is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental physics, and the nuclear industry.

the time required to convert one half of a reactant to product or a radioactive sample to decay

are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number, and consequently in nucleon number. All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom.

the difference between the mass of an isotope and its mass number

a subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary hydrogen.

either a proton or a neutron, considered in its role as a component of an atomic nucleus

nucleus of an isotope

or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1 e, a spin of 1/2 (the same as the electron), and has the same mass as an electron. When a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs.

a subatomic particle, symbol p or p⁺ , with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and a mass slightly less than that of a neutron

the emission of ionizing radiation or particles caused by the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.

an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and detecting the resultant light pulses.

the conversion of one chemical element or an isotope into another chemical element.

the greater rank of coal. Its instable, moistness and ash contents are very less. It is hard and most matured coal, it burns without smoke

a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal

a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch.

the lowest temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark

solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be replenished rapidly e.g. plants

plant or animal material used for energy production, or in various industrial processes as raw substance for a range of products. It can be purposely grown energy crops, wood or forest residues, waste from food crops, horticulture, food processing, animal farming, or human waste from sewage plants

One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It is used for road making and making water-proofing roofs. It is the liquid binder that holds asphalt together.

further sub-classified on the source of its carbon content into three categories as sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal and semi bituminous coal. It is black, brittle, and burns with yellow smoky flame

the percentage of hexadecane present in a mixture of hexadecane and 2-methyl naphthalene, which has the same ignition lag as the fuel under test

shaped by slow heating of wood or other flammable substances in the deficiency of oxygen

refers to the temperature below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance

a highly carbonaceous substance that has been shaped as an outcome of modification of vegetable substance (plants, etc.) under firm favorable circumstances

the decomposition of bigger hydrocarbon molecules into simpler, low boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight

a high boiling portion obtained between 250 – 320 oC during fractional purification of petroleum

the lowest temperature at which the vapor of that fuel will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame

he solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled of

the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it

hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years.

a combustible substance that containing carbon as a main constituent, which on proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically for domestic and industrial purpose

the outcome after distilling off all the lighter fractions of petroleum

a low boiling portion of petroleum attained between 40 – 120 oC. It is used mainly as a fuel in interior combustion engines

a high boiling portion obtained between 180 -250 oC during fractional purification of petroleum

a kind of explosion due to rapid pressure rise occurring in an Internal combustion engine

an intermediate phase in the development of coal formation. Due to the occurrence of high instable content, it burns with long steamy flame

natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane C2H6) that has been converted to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport.

is applied to certain specific hydrocarbons which can be liquefied under moderate pressure at normal temperatures but are gaseous under normal atmospheric conditions. The chief constituents of LPG are propane, propylene, butane, butylene, and isobutane

One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It is used as a lubrican

a lustrous, dense, strong, porous and coherent mass left when bituminous coal is heated strongly in absence of air

a combustible gas that occurs in porous rock of the earth’s crust and is often found with accumulations of crude oil or coal

the percentage of iso-octane present in a mixture of iso-octane and n heptane

One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It is used in boot polishes and candles.

the first phase in the development of coal. It is a brown fibrous mass

a dark color viscous oil. Chemically, it is a combination of several hydrocarbons with slight amounts of Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), and Sulfur (S) compounds

the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable

defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature

the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal

a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow

the hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the trunk or branches of a tree or shrub, used for fuel or timbe