• The ancient Japanese communities experienced several cultural and technological developments during the _____, from 300 BCE to 250 CE.
• During this time, permanent farming villages emerged. The societies that lived in these ancient villages developed a hierarchical social structure.

• _____ was now made using a potter's wheel and featured simpler designs; metallurgy improved, iron was widely used at around 100 CE; and paddy rice farming was widespread.

• The succeeding periods in Japan's history led to the development of cultural traits that distinguished Japan from other civilizations in the Far East.
• The _____ (250-538 CE) was distinguished for the construction of distinctive burial mounds called kofun, and almost 20,000 of them were built throughout Japan.
• These mounds of varied shapes and sizes were used to inter the remains of nobility.

• The largest kofun belonged to the earliest rulers of Japan and featured a distinctive "_____" shape. Burial goods recovered from the kofun included gold and bronze jewelry, iron weapons, and glass vessels.
• The widespread construction of the kofun points to a shared culture among the people of Japan.

• During the Kofun Period, the Japanese state structure began to take shape. The _____, the predominant clan in the mainland, began to expand its influence throughout the islands.
• The _____s founded the imperial dynasty that became the longest existing imperial house in modern times.
• The _____ dynasty controlled vast areas in the southwest regions of the archipelago.

• The native _____ belief system was a predominant cultural feature during the Kofun period.
• _____ developed from native spiritual practices which date back to the Jomon period.

• The central concept in _____ is the kami, which refers to spirits or natural forces found in all things.

• Places with sacred spiritual quality were considered shrines, and temples were constructed near them.
• A distinct feature of Shinto shrines is the _____, a gate that indicates the separation between the sacred space within the shrine and the outside world.

• Great social, political, and cultural transformations occurred during the _____ (538-710 CE). The Yamato dynasty firmly established its rule over most of Japan

• Around 531 CE, the dynasty adopted Confucian principles. The Japanese rulers increasingly sought equality with their neighboring empires, and the ruling monarchs began to refer to themselves as divine beings.
• In 646 CE, a series of reforms were implemented to reorganize the government. A code of laws was introduced, and a land redistribution program was implemented.

• The Yamato dynasty supported the study of Buddhism and Confucianism, and many Buddhist temples were built throughout Japan.
• _____ also had a considerable influence in Japanese culture, and aspects of these belief systems were incorporated into the native Shinto religion.
• These cultural developments were reflected in the kofun, as government reforms instituted and regulated the sizes and shapes of the burial mounds. Kofun made around 600 CE were simpler, and featured frescoes reflecting Buddhist and Confucian influences.

• Art and architecture thrived during the Asuka Period. Notable architectural structures made during this era included pagodas, such as those in the Buddhist temple.
• _____, was completed in 607 CE and is considered one of the oldest wooden temples in the world.
• These pagodas are notable for its distinctive style, influenced by Buddhism.

• The establishment of an imperial capital in the city of Nara in the Yamato Province, in 710 CE signaled the advent of a new historical era, the _____ (710-794 CE). The city was constructed based on a carefully outlined plan based on Chinese geomantic principles.

• The Imperial Palace (_____) was located at the northern sector of Nara. The palace complex, comprising several buildings such as the audience hall, imperial residences, and state halls, covered an area of 1.2 square kilometers.

• The Buddhist temple of _____, was built in Nara in 728 CE. It housed the Great Buddha of Nara, a 15-meter bronze statue which was completed in 751 CE.

• In literature, the earliest literary works produced were the collected earliest tales in Japanese mythology and history.
• The _____ is the oldest historical chronicle written in 712 CE.
• This work details the mythological origins of Japan, and describes the divine origins of the Japanese imperial family

• The _____, finished in 720 CE, is considered the most complete historical record of ancient Japan. The two works also outline the development of the Japanese script.

• The _____ primarily employs Chinese script to spell out Japanese names phonetically.

The _____ includes a description of the pronunciation of Japanese words.

• This early form of writing, which used Classical Chinese script to write the Japanese language, is known as _____.

• Later adaptations of the Chinese script to reflect the Japanese language eventually gave way to the modern Japanese writing system of _____.

The first large collection of poetry, the _____, was completed in 759 CE.

• The _____ (794-1185 CE) saw the rise of the samurai, the warrior class of Japanese society.

Local landlords (_____) were increasingly gaining power since the 8th century CE, and central control weakened due to the continuous infighting among the noble houses.

• The increasing lawlessness in the provinces led to the organization of private guards for the protection of the local elite.
• From these private armies, a new military elite, the samurai, emerged, whose actions were governed by a strict code (_____).
• Control over the government passed from the hands of the Emperor to the shogun, the empire's military commander.

• The rise in prominence of both the samurai and the office of the shogun was a product of several conflicts. The _____ of 1156 CE, which occurred due to a dispute in the imperial succession, enabled the samurai clans to gain dominance in state affairs.

• Two prominent samurai clans, the Taira and the Minamoto clans, gained important positions. The rivalry between these two clans resulted in the _____, where the Taira clan emerged victorious. The Taira victory, however, was short-lived and the Minamoto clan once again challenged them for supremacy.

• Another dispute in the imperial succession led to an open war between the rival factions, from 1180 to 1185 CE. This conflict was known as the _____, and in the battles that raged, the Taira were defeated and the Minamoto clan established the Kamakura Shogunate.

• The end of hostilities ushered in the establishment of the shogun as the foremost authority in the state and the introduction of feudalism in Japanese society. This is known in Japanese history as the _____ (1192-1333 CE).
• During this time, a land- based economy prevailed, and land-owning lords sought the services of vassals by offering land as payment for their loyalty.

• The Minamoto clan was the most powerful of all the landed elite and commanded the loyalty of several local lords. They were the sole political authority in the country. The imperial court in Kyoto was essentially powerless, and power was held by the _____ or the military government.
• The new government was established by Minamoto no Yoritomo, leader of the Minamoto samurai clan, in the city of Kamakura in 1192 CE.

• _____ became shogun and elevated the authority of the shogunate, eventually overshadowing that of the emperor.

Upon his death, however, his wife's relatives from the Hojo clan seized control of the bakufu, and the office of the shogun was assigned to a mere figurehead, while the regents (_____) held actual power in the government.
• Forces loyal to the Emperor attempted a failed uprising in 1221 CE, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate.

• The Japanese successfully repelled the Mongol invasion. The superior Mongol forces were greatly weakened by typhoons, enabling the Japanese to overwhelm their invaders.
• The Japanese considered the typhoons as a sign of divine protection and called them _____ or "divine wind." The defeat of the Mongols had important historical implications, as it marked the limit of the expansion of the Mongol Empire, and became a defining moment for Japanese nationalism.

• The _____ (1338- 1573 CE). A new shogunate was established by Ashikaga Takauiji in Kyoto.
• The Ashikaga shogunate took full control of the government from the imperial court, but it had to contend with several rebellions during its rule.
• Order was restored during the rule of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, which brought about several developments in Japanese culture.
• Zen Buddhism became an important influence in Japanese art, particularly in painting. Noh, a form of musical drama, enjoyed the support of the Ashikaga clan.
• During the t , the daimyo emerged as a powerful political force. The ensuing rivalry between the powerful landlords and the shogunate resulted in open conflict during the Onin War (1467 to 1477 CE). At the conclusion of the conflict, the Ashikaga shogunate collapsed, and succeeding shoguns became mere puppets of powerful lords.

The first Europeans arrived in Japan during the 16th century. Portuguese traders arrived at Kyushu in 1543 CE, while Christian missionaries, led by the Jesuit _____, arrived in 1549 CE.

The latter part of the Muromachi Period was a period of continuous warfare and political struggle among prominent clans and daimyos. This period, from the 15th to the 17th century CE was a period of warring states or the Sengoku Period, and included the _____ (1568 to 1600 CE).

• In 1568 CE, _____, a powerful regional lord from Central Japan, captured Kyoto and installed Ashikaga Yoshiaki as shogun.
• In 1571 CE, _____ undertook a campaign to unite the divided lands of Japan. He faced aggressive daimyos, hostile Buddhist sects, and belligerent trade merchants in his mission to consolidate government authority over Japan.

• A novel strategy utilized by Nobunaga was the use of the arquebus in battle, which gave his troops a great advantage over their enemies.
• Established himself as Nobunaga's successor after defeating his rivals, and completed the unification campaign started by his predecessor in 1590 CE.
• He reassigned the landholdings of several daimyos, rewarding his supporters, while ensuring that his former enemies were placed under close watch.
• He also ordered the banishment of Christian missionaries whom he considered a threat to the stability of the state. The confiscation of swords from the peasantry also ensured that the lower classes were unable to instigate a revolt or aid in any rebellion.
• _____'s death, in 1598, resulted in an unstable political situation in Japan, as his former vassals fought for control.

• Eventually, in 1600 CE, _____, leader of a former rival clan to Hideyoshi, defeated the other feuding factions in the decisive Battle of Sekigahara and was appointed shogun in 1603 CE.

• The establishment of the _____ in 1603 ushered in the Tokugawa or Edo Period in Japan. Ieyasu consolidated political power within his clan, and his closest allies were rewarded with large land grants in the richest provinces of the islands.
• The _____ was considered conservative. The government implemented a policy of isolation, though the shogun established limited trade relations with the Dutch in 1605 CE.
• As a whole, the government was suspicious of foreigners, and efforts were made to suppress and eradicate Christianity. In 1635 CE, an edict was issued which banned overseas travel for all Japanese, and foreign traders such as the Dutch and Portuguese were restricted to select ports.

_____ was outlawed and almost completely eradicated at around 1660 CE, with small groups of Christians continuing to practice their religion in secret.

• Despite the conservative politics of the shogun, the Edo Period was a time of great intellectual and cultural development. Literature enjoyed wide popularity among the masses, and a new poetic form, _____, was introduced.

• The refined noh drama gave way to less restrained theatrical performances, such as _____. Realism became a new influence in painting, and prints became a popular art style.

• Despite efforts to isolate itself from the outside world, the _____ was forced to contend with the growing influence of Western powers in Asia during the 19th century CE.

• In 1853, a fleet of battleships from the United States under the command of _____, arrived at Edo Bay seeking an audience with the Emperor.
• _____'s return in 1854, and the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa resulted in a crisis in the Japanese government and an increased anti-foreign sentiment among the people.
• The Japanese government, by 1856, had already entered into treaties with other foreign countries, such as Great Britain, Russia, and the Netherlands.
• The growing anti-foreign movement found support from the Emperor, and this added to the growing prestige of the Imperial institution.

• The growing unrest greatly reduced the authority of the shogunate, and many daimyos now began to support the Emperor in Kyoto. Open conflict broke out between the pro-imperial forces and the bakufu, with the bakufu suffering several defeats.
• In 1867, a new emperor, _____, took the throne as the new shogun, Yoshinobu, was appointed by the bakufu.
• In 1868, after several years of civil war between the Tokugawa and Imperial forces, _____ assumed direct control over the nation.

• The young emperor adopted the name _____, which means Enlightened Rule.
• The new era ushered in by the Meiji Restoration was a period of reform that saw the Japanese borrowing extensively from Western knowledge and technology

• t is a geographic and cultural region that includes the modern-day states of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.
• This region was also a major center of development during ancient times, with early civilizations flourishing along three major river systems: the Chao Praya, Mekong, and Red River.

• The _____ Culture (1000 BCE to 43 CE) is the most well-known of the ancient Southeast Asian cultures, which developed in the Red River Delta and the lowland coasts of Vietnam.
• Artifacts recovered from the period indicate a rich tradition of bronze working since 500 BCE. Among the bronze artifacts of the _____ are richly decorated bronze drums.

• The _____ (1000 BCE to 200 CE) emerged in the Mekong River Delta and the southern regions of Vietnam. The _____ people were known for producing iron tools and weapons, such as knives, axes, swords, and sickles.
• A unique practice of the _____ was the cremation of their dead, with the remains buried in jars. Like the Dong Son, the _____ engaged in extensive trade, trading goods, such as glass beads and ear ornaments. A number of these artifacts have been found in Thailand, Taiwan, and the Philippines.

• Toward the end of the 1st millenium BCE, the Southeast Asian mainland saw the development of centralized kingdoms.
• Modern historians apply the concept of the _____ in describing the development of the ancient kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Communities progressed and expanded outward as in a circle. The region was often in a constant state of change and transition.
• The territories of various kingdoms often overlapped; likewise, their influence expanded and contracted depending on cultural and political factors.

• Between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, the kingdoms of _____ and Champa emerged as important centers of trade in Indochina. These kingdoms established contacts with China and India which paved the way for the spread of Chinese and Indian influences throughout Southeast Asia.

• Most significant among these influences was the concept of _____, which the elite of the Southeast Asian kingdoms emulated and developed.

• At around 600 CE, the economic and political center of the region was at _____, at the Central Basin of Cambodia, which includes the Tonle Sap and the middle Mekong Rivers.

• Various chiefdoms vied for power within the region, and the constant conflict gave rise to powerful states. Among the various groups vying for power within Chenla, the _____ rose to prominence and established a powerful empire in Southeast Asia.

• In 802 CE, the Khmer ruler, _____conquered the neighboring kingdoms and established the Khmer Empire. _____'s rule was based on the principles of Hinduism.

He considered himself a reincarnation of the god Shiva, and required that the conquered kingdoms render him tribute and worship him as "god king." Jayavarman's rule was characterized by a tradition of building large temple complexes called _____ or "holy city."

• These structures of large temples served several purposes. They were symbolic representations of Hindu principles and the concept of the "god king" (_____).

• _____, built by King Suyavarman II in 1113 CE, was a foremost example of the unique architectural tradition of the Khmer kingdoms.
• The temple complex occupied an area of two square kilometers, surrounded by a moat 180 meters wide, and a wall that was almost six kilometers in length.
• The structure was composed of multi-level terraces with a central cluster of five towers-the tallest of which rose more than 60 meters tall.

• Angkor Wat was meant to symbolize _____, the mythical mountain from which the Hindu gods created the universe.
• The central temple complex served as a venue for public rituals and ceremonies witnessed by thousands. Outside the walls of Angkor Wat, a city arose which sheltered thousands.

Jayavarman VII, who succeeded to the throne in 1181 CE, built _____, a new capital city laid out according to the sacred design of the holy city.

• The structure of the temple complex was unique, as it include Buddhist elements. Most famous of the structures within the city was _____ or "the 3 tower of gold" which featured images of the Buddha and the king.

• During the 13th century CE, the influence of the Khmer Empire declined, and the Thai kingdom of _____ gained prominence in the region.
• The Kingdom of _____ (1351 to 1767 CE) was centered on the Chao Praya River in modern-day Thailand. During the 14th century CE, _____ expanded and annexed its neighbors and was considered a prominent regional power in Southeast Asia

• In 1431 CE, its attack on _____ marked the end of the Khmer Empire. Burma launched a series of attacks from 1584 to 1593 CE, which were repelled by the Thais

• The _____ responded by occupying Burmese territories in 1595 and 1602. This victory over the Burmese brought _____ to the height of military power and economic progress, occupying Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and portions of Burma. In 1767 CE, however, a second wave of invasions from Burma resulted in the collapse of _____.

• The ancient Burmese Kingdom of _____ (849 to 1297 CE) was founded by settlers from southern China. These people established a kingdom around the Irawaddy River, by uniting the various chiefdoms within the region.
• At around the 12th century CE, _____ had become a powerful regional force in Southeast Asia, and was recognized as an empire alongside the powerful Khmer Empire.

• The maritime region of _____ is comprised of the archipelagos which correspond to the modern-day states of Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

• Trade was a major influence in the development of powerful empires along strategic maritime trade routes. In particular, the _____ was an important center of trade and commerce and played a major role in the developments in Southeast Asia. The vibrant regional trade resulted in the spreading of Chinese and Indian culture throughout the islands

• _____, brought by Arab traders and missionaries, had a profound impact on the communities of Maritime Southeast Asia.
• The arrival of Western nations also signaled the dawning of a new age of colonialism, and the decline of the native kingdoms in the region.

• The Empire of _____ (683 to 1281 CE) gained prominence during the 7th century CE, when it brought the rival kingdoms of Sumatra under its control. In the 8th century, the empire embarked on a campaign of military and diplomatic expansion.
• At the height of its power, _____ occupied territories in the island of Java and the Malay Peninsula, and established contacts with communities as far-away as India, the Bay of Bengal, the Philippines, and Madagascar.

• Maritime trade was the driving force behind the prosperity of Srivijaya. The strategic location of the empire gave it control over important trade routes along the _____.
• The empire enjoyed lucrative trade relations with China and India, controlled the trade of spices from the Moluccas, and enjoyed the prestige of being among the most powerful empires in Asia

• Fostered the growth of Hinduism through various means. Classic Hindu texts were translated into Old Javanese, and many temples dedicated to the Hindu gods were constructed.
• Foremost among these, was the _____ in central Java. It was composed of 240 temples, the tallest of which stood at 47 meters.
• The three main temples of the complex were dedicated to the three main Hindu deities: Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu.
• Various wall carvings and sculptures throughout the complex depicted scenes from Hindu mythology and the Hindu epic Ramayana.

• The _____ Dynasty rose to power at around 750 CE, with its influence extending into Sumatra and the empire of Srivijaya around 800 CE. During the late 10th century CE, relations between Mataram and Srivijaya deteriorated.
• In 1006 CE, Srivijaya invaded Java, ending the reign of the _____s. The _____s were devout Buddhists, and historians believed that Hinduism and Buddhism coexisted within the kingdom, leading to a co-mingling of some of their beliefs.

• The Sailendras constructed the most renowned Buddhist temple complex of _____ in Central Java. The temple complex was composed of a series of square and circular platforms, adorned with more than 2000 relief panels and 500 Buddha statues.
• The main central dome of the temple is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues enclosed within stupas.

• The last and most powerful ancient maritime empire in Southeast Asia was the _____ (1293 to 1527 CE) which had its roots from the Hindu kingdom of Singharasi in the island of Java.
• A Mongol invasion in 1293 CE led to the establishment of a stronghold in the village of _____.
• The _____ Empire exerted control over the maritime trade routes in Southeast Asia, enjoying a monopoly in commerce and trade within the region.

• The Majapahit was known for its _____, and artisans produced several earthenware sculptures and pottery. Carved bricks and wall carvings. featuring Hindu and Buddhist deities, featured designs conforming to the art style known as East Javanese.

• During the 12th century CE, Muslim presence in Southeast Asia grew stronger as Arabic traders and Muslim missionaries traveled widely throughout the kingdoms.
• A number of local communities were converted to _____ and _____ic kingdoms developed within the region. Among the first _____ic communities, were the Sultanates of Kedah in the Peninsula and Ternate of the Moluccas Islands in Indonesia.
• The growing influence of the _____ic kingdoms contributed to the decline of the Majapahit Empire during 15th century CE.

• Europeans gradually gained interest in controlling the profitable trade routes along the _____, and many Western nations sought to establish direct links to the resource-rich regions of Southeast Asia.
• In 1510 CE, the Portuguese embarked on an expedition which occupied Goa in India, and captured the city of Malacca in 1511. The occupation of Malacca by the Portuguese forced the sultan into exile.

• The _____ gained prominence in the 15th century CE during the reign of Sultan Bolkiah. Brunei's influence extended along the coasts of Sarawak and Sabah, and the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines.
• Important sultanates in the southern Philippine island of Mindanao included the Sultanate of Sulu-which ruled over the Sulu Archipelago, and portions of Southern Philippines and Northern Borneo, and the Sultanates of Maguindanao and Lanao.

In the northern Philippine island of Luzon, the progressive community of Manila ruled over a kingdom that enjoyed trade relations with _____ during the 14th century CE.
• From the 10th century CE onwards, various coastal communities in the Philippines traded with _____ and the communities of Southeast Asia, leaving significant Chinese and Indian cultural influences among the early pre colonial Filipinos.

• During the 14th century, these communities developed into societies called _____, that established seafaring and trading centers up until the arrival of Europeans during the 16th century CE.

• The earliest evidence of human settlements in Oceania were found in Papua New Guinea and Australia. The _____ in Papua New Guinea yielded proof of a Neolithic settlement established around 6,500 years ago.
• The oldest human remains recovered, point to the arrival of human groups 50,000 years ago.

• In Australia, the earliest human remains were found in the southeastern regions, and were determined to be between 60,000 to 40,000 years old.
• The earliest human populations were believed to have traveled to Australia by sea, and were the ancestors of the Australian aboriginals.
• Australian aboriginals are known for their use of the _____ and the boomerang. The aboriginal culture of Australia remained undisturbed for millennia until the arrival of Europeans during the 17th century.

• The first distinct community to emerge in the Pacific Islands was the _____, believed to be an offshoot of the Austronesian expansion originating from southern China and Formosa around 5000 to 6000 years ago.
• The Lapita were identified through their distinctive pottery which were found throughout Melanesia and in the Polynesian islands of Samoa and Tonga.
• _____ flourished throughout the first millennium BCE and the Lapita people are considered to be the common ancestor of the peoples in Polynesia, Micronesia, and some areas of Melanesia.

• _____ was settled by dark-skinned people related to Papuans at around 3500 BCE. It is believed that Austronesians soon traveled to the islands and moved on to the islands of Polynesia and Micronesia.
These islands were among the latest regions to be populated by humans, with evidence pointing to the arrival of settlers not later than 1000 CE.

The most common crops in the region were breadfruit, taro, coconut yams, and bananas. The Pacific islanders did not rely on metal, but instead used stone tools and bone and shellfish hooks. The people of the Pacific also excelled in _____ and seafaring.

• The _____ of New Zealand were renowned warriors, and launched campaigns against neighboring countries in elaborate war canoes.
• During the 18th century CE, the _____ warriors were widely recognized for their bravery and skill in seafaring.

• The warlike culture of the Maori is reflected in their settlements called _____, which are fortified structures located on elevated ground.

• The cultures of the Pacific Islanders are greatly diverse, with unique cultural traditions and artifacts. Polynesian peoples, such as the _____ and the people of Tahiti and Hawaii, had well-defined social structures and leadership.

• Tribal chiefs were believed to possess a divine power called _____, a spiritual energy possessed by living and even non-living things.

• The early Hawaiians believed that shrines, called _____, were sources of mana and that priests and kings draw mana from these shrines through ritual sacrifice.

• A ruler's performance of obligations and tasks could also replenish _____, while the failure to perform his tasks and obligations would result in the loss of _____.
• The loss of a ruler's _____ was believed to cause disasters in their communities, like natural calamities, disease, or a defeat in battle.

Another notable concept was the _____, which was a restriction related to objects or places considered sacred.

• The people of Oceania and the Pacific had a rich _____ from which religious ceremonies and rituals were based. _____ played a significant role in the various communities, as it was used to record and pass on knowledge through generations.

• _____ was an essential skill when participating in tribal ceremonies. Pacific Island communities often told their myths and stories through song. A unique belief among the Australian aboriginals was the songline, in which songs were used to navigate through the land.

• The Pacific islanders are also renowned for their artistry. The _____, who reached New Zealand around 1320, are known for their rich tradition of tattooing (ta moko), their meeting houses (whare runanga) and war canoes which are adorned by intricate wood carvings, and for their practice of staging ceremonial dances called haka.

• _____ are renowned for their weaving and the construction of bure kalou religious houses with a pyramid-like roof.

The Rapa Nui people of Easter Island were known for erecting colossal statues called _____, which are believed to have great spiritual significance.