Its focus on cohesion, coherence, and communicative purpose beyond the sentence level

Its exclusion of pragmatic and semantic factors

Its primary interest in prescriptive grammar rules

Its study of isolated syntactic patterns

Because traditional sentence-level analysis was insufficient to explain real communication

Because structuralism rejected any form of contextual analysis

Because literary studies fully merged with linguistics

Because linguists no longer studied discourse and pragmatics

The shift from sentence-level analysis to discourse-level analysis

Exclusive focus on grammatical structures

Reduction of text analysis to lexical frequency counts

Avoidance of interdisciplinary approaches

Focus on how texts fulfill communicative purposes in real contexts

Analysis of fictional texts only

Prioritizing author’s biography over textual structure

Rejecting pragmatic analysis

How mental models and conceptual structures shape text production and interpretation

Only surface-level linguistic markers

Texts without considering the reader's perspective

Grammar rules independent of meaning

The classification of texts based on their structural, functional, or communicative properties

The study of vocabulary patterns in literary texts

The analysis of author-specific linguistic choices

The categorization of texts according to grammatical complexity

Expository text

Narrative text

Persuasive text

Descriptive text

The communicative purpose of the text

The number of lexical units

The geographical origin of the author

The frequency of figurative language

The coexistence of multiple social voices, languages, and worldviews within a single text

The deliberate mixing of genres in order to parody traditional literary forms

The transformation of authorial style into a unified narrative voice

The reduction of stylistic diversity to create clearer communication

The subversion of hierarchical norms through humor, parody, and role reversal

The strict classification of texts according to structural criteria

The replacement of colloquial speech with high literary language

The elimination of stylistic contrasts for cohesive interpretation

The blending of different genres, modes, or discourses within a single communicative space

The exclusive use of a standardized literary register

A complete separation of narrative voices to avoid interpretive ambiguity

A text that contains only explicit meanings without intertextual layers

The author’s attitude toward the content and the way it is linguistically encoded

The degree of thematic unity in a text

The level of background knowledge shared by reader and writer

The presence of citations and references to other texts

The semantic and structural unity of a text as a coherent whole

The grammatical correctness of individual sentences

The number of paragraphs and sections in a text

The emotional tone expressed by the author

The text’s compliance with cultural, genre-based, and communicative norms

The ability of a text to include foreign language units

The level of creativity displayed by the author

The quantity of intertextual links present in a text

The presence of explicit or implicit links between a text and other texts

The author’s emotional involvement in the narrative

The stylistic homogeneity of the text

The sequential order of events within the text

Its aesthetic function and use of imaginative representation

Its focus on factual accuracy

Its strict adherence to scientific terminology

Its primary orientation toward legal regulation

Multilayered meaning created through imagery and stylistic devices

Direct instructional purpose and didactic clarity

Exclusive reliance on chronological description

Absence of implicit meanings

To evoke emotional and aesthetic response in the reader

To provide statistical data

To regulate social norms through legal terminology

To convey explicit procedural instructions

To create a vivid, symbolic representation of reality

To present information in a purely denotative manner

To neutralize emotional perception

To avoid metaphorical associations

Allusion

Antonomasia

Epigraph

Quote

A symbol conveys broader, culturally shared meanings beyond its immediate context

An image never contains figurative meaning

A symbol and an image always denote the same concept

A symbol refers only to visual description without abstraction

Implicit meaning is not directly stated and must be inferred from context

Implicit meaning is always expressed through formal grammatical markers

Explicit meaning is always emotionally charged

Explicit meaning cannot be interpreted without background knowledge

Meaning hidden within the lexical or grammatical structure of the sentence

Meaning derived from the speaker’s communicative strategy

Meaning shaped exclusively by cultural scripts

Meaning that depends solely on shared knowledge

Meaning inferred from speaker intention and situational context

Meaning encoded in morphemes and syntactic structures

Meaning determined only by dictionary definitions

Meaning unrelated to communicative goals

Shared mental models and culturally shaped conceptual structures

Logical connectors and cohesive devices

Speaker’s tone of voice only

Individual emotional responses unrelated to knowledge

Background information assumed to be known and taken for granted in a text

A stylistic device used to provide ironic connotations

A strategy for expressing contradiction

An optional element used mainly in fiction

Meaning implied by the speaker that goes beyond the literal content

A direct statement following the maxims of clarity

A lexical phenomenon connected exclusively to idioms

A feature of grammatical cohesion

It enables the reader to fill in missing information and interpret implicit cues

It distracts the reader from the literal meaning

It replaces the need for explicit text structure

It only applies to technical or scientific texts

Communicators should aim to be truthful, relevant, clear, and informative

Communicators must always maximize politeness

Communicators should focus on emotional impact rather than clarity

Communicators should avoid implicature in dialogue

To define the overall intention of why the text is created and what effect it aims to achieve

To identify lexical stylistic devices used in the text

To classify texts by structural organization

To limit the interpretative possibilities for the reader

Intentions are immediate, context-specific acts realized through linguistic choices, while goals are broader outcomes the text aims to achieve

Intentions refer only to emotional tone, while goals concern grammar

Intentions are the audience’s interpretation, while goals are the author’s biography

Intentions are always unconscious, while goals are always explicit

Shared background knowledge and cognitive schemas between author and reader.

Strict adherence to literary canons.

Extensive use of explicit definitions in the text.

A limited number of communicative strategies.

Texts must optimize clarity, brevity, and cognitive effort to ensure effective communication.

Texts should primarily appeal to emotions rather than logic.

Texts must follow canonical narrative structures.

Texts should avoid the use of intertextual references.

The speaker’s immediate communicative purpose in a given context (e.g., persuading, motivating, warning).

The historical evolution of a genre.

The semantic relationships inside the text.

The syntactic organization of discourse.

A system of culturally shaped knowledge, values, and models encoded in language and texts.

A structural map of a text’s syntax.

A universal set of meanings shared by all languages.

A classification system for speech acts.

Discourse is language-in-use, viewed together with its social, cultural, and pragmatic context.

Discourse is a set of grammatically connected sentences.

Discourse is a purely literary narrative with stylistic features.

Discourse is any spoken text produced in formal communication.

Text is a structural, finished product; discourse is a dynamic communicative process.

Text is always spoken, while discourse is always written.

Text is subjective, while discourse is objective.

Text appears only in professional communication, while discourse appears in everyday speech.

Teun A. van Dijk

Noam Chomsky

Ferdinand de Saussure

Roman Jakobson

Geological discourse

Academic discourse

Political discourse

Media discourse

It is regulated by social roles and power relations (e.g., doctor–patient, teacher–student).

It relies exclusively on literary devices and metaphors.

It is produced only in digital environments.

It is always spontaneous and emotionally driven.

Shapes and constructs social reality through systems of knowledge and power.

Exists independently of social institutions and ideologies.

Has no connection to historical or cultural context.

Functions only at the level of individual communication.

The speaker’s underlying goal that guides how their message is formulated

The grammatical structure of the utterance

The frequency of lexical items in the text

The visual presentation of the message

“Could you possibly open the window?”

“The window is open.”

“Windows are useful for ventilation.”

“Open windows allow fresh air in.”

It helps anchor meaning to context through references to person, place, or time

It clarifies the etymology of lexical items

It eliminates ambiguity in literary texts

It removes the need for background knowledge

Maintaining social harmony and preserving the interlocutor’s face

Increasing the efficiency of information exchange

Highlighting cultural stereotypes

Reducing the grammatical complexity of discourse

Argumentation, emotional appeal, rhetorical devices

Neutral enumeration of facts

Random narrative digressions

Purely aesthetic description

Communicating the speaker’s emotional state or attitude

Providing objective factual information

Demonstrating expertise in a professional field

Describing spatial relations in discourse

A basic mental unit of meaning representing culturally shaped knowledge

A stylistic device used to intensify narrative meaning

A logical category used exclusively in scientific texts

A grammatical marker indicating text coherence

A structured mental schema organizing knowledge about typical situations

A metaphor that structures narrative interpretation

A rhetorical device for creating emphasis

A syntactic model defining sentence boundaries

A holistic cognitive structure perceived as an integrated whole

A discrete linguistic sign with stable meaning

A narrative trope used in literary texts

A purely visual pattern with no linguistic relevance

An internal representation of situations, events, or states described in the text

A method of syntactic analysis applied to large texts

A universal template shared by all languages equally

A communicative strategy used to attract the reader’s attention

A culturally specific system of knowledge and worldview encoded in language

A set of universal categories common to all human cultures

A visual representation accompanying narrative texts

A stylistic method for building complex metaphors

A dynamic script describing the typical sequence of actions in a situation

A literary technique used to enhance plot development

A rhetorical model of argumentation in persuasive texts

A grammatical pattern marking temporal relations

As a dynamic system of knowledge constantly updated through experience

As a static set of rules independent of human cognition

As a purely communicative tool without cultural content

As a universal logical code detached from mental representations

Language reflects and transmits culturally significant meanings.

Language develops independently of culture.

Cultural meanings do not influence textual interpretation.

Language is primarily a biological system.

A culturally shaped model of reality encoded in language.

A universal worldview shared by all languages.

A purely grammatical structure without cultural elements.

A set of borrowed lexical items from other cultures.

Types of discourse as reflections of social roles and cultural values.

Biological evolution of communicative abilities.

Purely structural analysis of texts.

Universal logic independent of cultural context.

Identifying how texts encode national cultural meanings.

Eliminating cultural specificity from translation.

Studying texts only at the grammatical level.

Focusing exclusively on stylistic devices.

Cultural codes embedded in narrative structures.

Syntactic ambiguity.

Phonemic oppositions.

Statistical word frequency.

It integrates cultural anthropology with linguistic interpretation.

It rejects any connection between cultural meanings and language.

It studies only literary stylistics.

It focuses solely on logical argumentation in texts.

Genre is a category of text defined by its communicative purpose and formal features.

Genre is any text that contains more than 100 words.

Genre is only defined by its author’s intention.

Genre is determined solely by the medium (printed, digital, oral).

Recurring structure, typical lexicon, and conventional communicative goals.

Random arrangement of sentences and vocabulary.

Exclusively artistic expression.

Always narrative in nature.

Narrative, descriptive, argumentative, expository, and instructive.

Only written and spoken.

Fictional and non-fictional only.

Informal and formal only.

Genres help organize communication, signal expectations, and guide interpretation.

Genres exist only for literary analysis.

Genres are irrelevant for understanding a text.

Genres are determined by the author’s mood.

Scientific style is characterized by logical structure, precise terminology, and objectivity.

Scientific style primarily uses emotional appeals and imagery.

Scientific style is mainly narrative and entertaining.

Scientific style focuses on personal opinions and subjective experience.

Artistic style emphasizes imagery, expressive language, and aesthetic impact.

Artistic style avoids figurative language and symbolism.

Artistic style is only used in scientific publications.

Artistic style is rigidly formal and standardized.

Official-business style uses standard formulas, clarity, and formal conventions in communication.

Official-business style focuses on storytelling and metaphor.

Official-business style is characterized by playful language.

Official-business style avoids logical sequence.

Publicistic style aims to inform, persuade, and engage a broad audience using accessible language.

Publicistic style is limited to private letters.

Publicistic style excludes rhetorical devices.

Publicistic style is purely technical and devoid of opinion.

Oral texts are typically interactive, spontaneous, and rely on intonation and context.

Oral texts are always formal and use complex written structures.

Oral texts do not involve any listener feedback.

Oral texts avoid any use of gestures or voice modulation.

Written texts are permanent, structured, and allow careful revision.

Written texts are spontaneous and cannot be corrected.

Written texts are only for personal communication.

Written texts are never used for academic purposes.

Oral texts often use simpler syntax, repetitions, and discourse markers; written texts use complex sentences and cohesive devices.

Oral texts always have complex punctuation; written texts rely on speech rhythm.

Oral texts are identical to written texts in structure.

Written texts avoid clarity and logical sequencing.

Oral texts depend heavily on immediate context and shared knowledge; written texts provide explicit context and information.

Oral texts are context-independent; written texts are purely conversational.

Both oral and written texts never require background knowledge.

Written texts are always spontaneous and rely on gestures.

Texts are systems of signs that convey meaning through codes and conventions.

Texts are purely random sequences of words with no structure.

Texts can be analyzed only for grammatical correctness.

Texts do not convey any social or cultural meaning.

Symbols, signs, motifs, codes, and intertextual references.

Only punctuation and sentence length.

Word frequency without context.

Random selection of paragraphs.

Symbols encode cultural, social, or psychological meanings beyond literal language.

Symbols are irrelevant for understanding text meaning.

Symbols are always literal and never figurative.

Symbols only indicate spelling mistakes.

Identifying how a national flag in a news article represents collective identity and ideology.

Counting letters in words for no reason.

Ignoring all recurring motifs in a text.

Only analyzing sentence length without meaning.

Communication that occurs through digital platforms, involving texts, images, videos, and multimedia.

Only printed newspapers and books.

Face-to-face conversation without any digital component.

Oral storytelling in traditional settings.

Hypertextuality, multimodality, interactivity, and non-linear structure.

Always linear, static, and printed.

No signs or symbols, only raw data.

Only oral communication recorded digitally.

Memes, hashtags, emojis, hyperlinks, and social media conventions.

Grammar rules only.

Counting words without context.

Ignoring all cultural and social references.

Rapid change of language norms, cultural hybridity, and polysemy of online symbols.

There are no challenges; online texts are simple.

Only analyzing punctuation mistakes matters.

Digital texts never reflect social or cultural meanings.

The study of language through large, structured collections of authentic texts.

Creating fictional texts for classroom use only.

Memorizing grammar rules without examples.

Recording only spoken language without analysis.

To analyze patterns of language use, frequency, collocations, and discourse structures.

To replace traditional dictionaries completely.

To avoid learning cultural aspects of language.

Only to check spelling.

General corpora, specialized corpora, learner corpora, parallel corpora.

Only printed books.

Random notes on paper.

Any text without structure or annotation.

Identifying recurring linguistic patterns and pragmatic features in texts.

Ignoring text structure and context.

Only counting words alphabetically.

Replacing human interpretation entirely.

Provides empirical data, ensures reproducibility, and reveals hidden regularities in discourse.

Eliminates the need for text interpretation.

Limits analysis to single sentences only.

Focuses only on grammar exercises.

Concordancers, frequency lists, collocation extractors, and annotation software.

Only paper dictionaries.

Random internet searches without criteria.

Handwriting analysis without textual context.

Studying structure, meaning, function, and context of texts using modern techniques.

Only memorizing vocabulary.

Ignoring context and only counting words.

Reading texts without any analysis.

Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, multimodal analysis, computational methods.

Only handwritten notes.

Guessing meaning from the title.

Ignoring language patterns.

Allows large-scale pattern recognition and quantitative data collection.

Completely replaces human interpretation.

Examines texts alongside images, video, and other semiotic modes.

Focuses exclusively on grammar.

Ignores context and communication goals.

Studies text only in print format.

To present the topic, outline objectives, and engage the reader.

To summarize the conclusion.

To provide only examples.

To list references.

Detailed arguments, explanations, evidence, and examples supporting the main idea.

Only the title of the text.

A list of unrelated ideas.

A conclusion.

To summarize main points, restate significance, and provide closure.

To introduce new unrelated ideas.

To repeat the introduction word-for-word.

To provide only quotations.

Formal linguistic links connecting parts of a text.

Emotional unity of characters.

Cultural symbolism.

Author’s intention.

Logical and semantic consistency perceived by the reader.

Presence of grammatical markers.

Use of stylistic figures.

Sentence length.

Reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction.

Plot development.

Emotional tone.

Author biography.

Context-dependent references (person, time, place).

Lexical repetition.

Metaphorical meaning.

Genre classification.

Referring back to a previously mentioned element.

Introducing new information.

Expressing modality.

Creating stylistic contrast.

Referring forward to information later in the text.

Repeating the same lexical unit.

Omitting sentence elements.

Marking discourse boundaries.

Textuality.

Phonetic accuracy.

Morphological agreement.

Lexical rarity.

Phonological harmony.

Cohesion.

Coherence.

Intentionality.

The author’s purpose in producing the text.

Reader’s emotional reaction.

Cultural symbolism.

Stylistic ornamentation.

Reader’s recognition of the text as appropriate and meaningful.

Text length.

Sentence complexity.

Lexical richness.

Degree of new or expected information in the text.

Number of facts.

Use of quotations.

Emotional expressiveness.

Relevance of a text to a communicative situation.

Literary genre.

Historical period.

Narrative structure.

Connections between texts through references and echoes.

Sentence-level grammar.

Phonetic repetition.

Orthographic norms.

Global meaning or overall thematic structure.

Sentence syntax.

Lexical morphology.

Stylistic devices.

Local linguistic structures at sentence and clause level.

Cultural worldview.

Genre system.

Discourse ideology.

A linguistic unit organizing interaction and coherence.

A grammatical tense.

A stylistic metaphor.

A phonetic feature.

Events arranged in temporal sequence.

Logical argumentation.

Instruction giving.

Scientific explanation.

Justify or refute a standpoint.

Describe objects.

Entertain readers.

Present instructions.

Explain and inform objectively.

Persuade emotionally.

Tell fictional stories.

Express personal feelings.

Step-by-step guidance for actions.

Symbolic imagery.

Emotional evaluation.

Narrative suspense.

Variation of language according to situation and purpose.

Historical language change.

Individual author style.

Phonetic dialect.

Register analysis (Halliday).

Narrative theory.

Stylistics.

Semiotics.

Nature of social activity and subject matter.

Relationship between participants.

Channel of communication.

Cultural symbolism.

Social relations between participants.

Topic of discourse.

Medium of communication.

Genre type.

Role of language and channel (spoken/written).

Emotional tone.

Cultural context.

Lexical choice.

Development of theme–rheme structure across the text.

Plot structure.

Stylistic repetition.

Genre evolution.

What the sentence is about (given information).

New information.

Emotional emphasis.

Stylistic ornament.

New or focal information in a sentence.

Background context.

Presupposition.

Discourse marker.

Topical theme.

Interpersonal theme.

Textual theme.

Stylistic theme.

Conjunctions and discourse markers.

Nouns and verbs.

Metaphors.

Idioms.

Speaker’s attitude or interactional meaning.

Topic continuity.

Narrative time.

Cultural symbolism.

Making certain elements prominent against a background.

Reducing stylistic contrast.

Neutralizing meaning.

Eliminating ambiguity.

Deviation and parallelism.

Literal language.

Neutral syntax.

Technical terminology.

A. Repetition of similar structures for effect

B. Random variation

C. Ellipsis

D. Substitution

A. Breaking linguistic norms for expressive effect

B. Following grammar strictly

C. Using clichés

D. Avoiding metaphor

A. Study of narrative structure and techniques

B. Study of phonetics

C. Study of morphology

D. Study of translation

A. Gérard Genette

B. Saussure

C. Chomsky

D. Bloomfield

A. Perspective through which events are perceived

B. Grammatical voice

C. Sentence order

D. Lexical cohesion

A. Narrative where the narrator’s credibility is questionable

B. Objective reporting

C. Scientific description

D. Legal discourse

A. Text commenting on or referring to itself

B. Intertextual quotation

C. Background knowledge

D. Cultural symbol

A. Titles, prefaces, footnotes surrounding the main text

B. Sentence syntax

C. Discourse markers

D. Lexical fields

A. Non-linear text connected via links

B. Printed literary text

C. Oral storytelling

D. Legal document

A. Digital and Internet discourse

B. Classical poetry

C. Oral folklore

D. Scientific monographs

A. Use of multiple semiotic modes (text, image, sound)

B. Only verbal language

C. Only written form

D. Only oral form

A. Pragmatic and emotional markers

B. Grammatical units

C. Lexical roots

D. Phonemes

A. Organize and index discourse topics

B. Express tense

C. Mark sentence boundaries

D. Replace syntax

A. A culturally shared multimodal unit of meaning

B. A grammatical construction

C. A narrative genre

D. A speech act

A. Relatively stable types of utterances in communication

B. Literary trope

C. Grammatical category

D. Phonetic style

A. Meaning arises through interaction of voices

B. Monologic structure

C. Stylistic neutrality

D. Semantic isolation

A. Presence of multiple independent voices

B. Single narrative voice

C. Logical argument

D. Thematic unity

A. Expression of attitudes, judgments, values

B. Sentence syntax

C. Lexical repetition

D. Phonetic stress

A. How language expresses evaluation and stance

B. Sentence grammar

C. Text length

D. Genre classification

A. Speaker’s positioning toward content and audience

B. Narrative time

C. Lexical cohesion

D. Text integrity

A. Power, ideology, and inequality in discourse

B. Phonological rules

C. Literary aesthetics only

D. Sentence parsing

A. Critical discourse analysis

B. Structuralism

C. Generative grammar

D. Behaviorism

A. Systems of beliefs embedded in language use

B. Sentence meaning only

C. Lexical semantics

D. Text cohesion