HZT-Free will, determinism, and responsibility

March 25, 2024

Free will, determinism,
and responsibility

FREEWILL

A PERSON IS NOT A COLLECTION OF EVENTS OR STATES, BUT THE RESULT OF THE CHOICES BEEN MADE.

DETERMINISM

A PERSON IS A COLLECTION OF EVENTS OR STATES, THAT COMPROMISE THE AGENT TO MAKE CHOICES.

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free-will?

Jackie knows that her parents want her to become a doctor, but she decides to go into engineering instead.

• free-will

• determinism

Multiple Choice

The psychological concept of free-will sees humans as _____________.

• Selfie takers

• Self-deluded

• Self-determined

• Self-interested

Multiple Choice

The free will vs. determinism debate argues whether our behaviour...

• can be explained by more complex ideas or simplistic ideas

• is because of a choice or because of internal and external factors out of our control

• is best explained by looking at the individual to create a unique explanation or groups to create general laws

• is caused by biological factors or environmental influences

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is a theologian famous for his predestination theories?

• Pelagius

• Augustine

• Aquinas

• Sartre

Multiple Choice

What is determinism?

• A scientific theory that explains the origin of the universe

• Philosophical idea that every event is the inevitable consequence of antecedent states of affairs

• The belief that events are random and have no cause

• The idea that every event is the result of human free will

Multiple Choice

"Will" refers to our mental ability to make choice and do actions to carry these choices.

• True

• False

Multiple Choice

The free will vs. determinism debate argues whether our behaviour

• can be explained by more complex ideas or simplistic ideas

• is best explained by looking at the individual to create a unique explanation or groups to create general laws

• is because of a choice or because of internal and external factors out of our control

• is caused by biological factors or environmental influences

What is the debate about free will, determinism, and responsibility?

Cases for the different views

Theological determinism

Multiple Choice

____________ states that all behaviour has a cause and effect.

• Soft determinism

• Hard determinism

• Libertarianism

Multiple Choice

The view that believes that all events that happen in the world are caused by previous events or conditions along with the laws of nature.

• Determinism

• Hard Determinism

• Libertarianism

• Compatibilism

Multiple Choice

This version allows for some free will. What type of determinism is this?

• Soft Determinism

• Hard Determinism

• Scientific Determinism

• Libertarianism

Multiple Choice

Explain the concept of free will.

• Free will is the concept that individuals have the ability to make choices and decisions of their own volition, without being determined by external forces.

• Free will is the idea that individuals can only make choices based on their instincts and impulses.

• Free will means that individuals are predetermined to make certain choices by external forces.

• Free will is the concept that individuals have no control over their choices and decisions.

Multiple Choice

Libertarians argue that we are morally responsible for our use of free will.

• True

• False

Multiple Choice

This view accepts that while certain events in the world are caused and thus are determined, there are also some events that are not.

• Determinism

• Hard Determinism

• Libertarianism

• Compatibilism

Multiple Choice

Determinism is the idea that

• All events have no cause

• All events have a cause

• Some events have no cause

• Some events have a cause

Multiple Choice

Which theologian is famous for his religious free will theory?

• Sartre

• Cavin

• Augustine

• Pelagius

Multiple Select

Which of the following philosophers hold a soft deterministic viewpoint?

• Steven Pinker

• Jean-Paul Sartre

• Immanuel Kant

• John Locke

• Baruch Spinoza

Multiple Choice

In Libertarianism, freedom is sometimes referred to as self- determinism.

• True

• False

Explanation Slide...

Pinker states that man might be predisposed to violence, but reason controls that predisposition, while Kant says our own self-awareness, without which the world would not make sense to us, forces on us the idea that we are free. This makes both philosophers soft determinists.

Multiple Choice

Discuss the philosophical debate between determinism and free will.

• The debate between socialism and capitalism

• The conflict between democracy and dictatorship

• Determinism vs. Free Will

• The discussion on the benefits of vegetarianism

Multiple Choice

A libertarian view is that

• We are all under the control of God

• Animals do not have free will

• Humans have no free will

• Humans have free will

Multiple Choice

The conclusion of hard determinism is: no free will and no moral accountability.

• True

• False

Multiple Choice

According to hard determinism, are individuals responsible for their actions?

• Yes

• No

• Only on weekends

• Sometimes

Multiple Choice

The impact of unsconscious conficts on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Multiple Choice

What are the key arguments against hard determinism?

• The absence of ethical accountability

• The lack of personal agency

• The existence of free will, unpredictability of human behaviour, and potential for moral responsibility

• The inevitability of fate

Multiple Choice

According to this, the actions of a human person are free because the the human is not forced, compelled, or constrained to do actions to satisfy his/ her own intentions.

• Determinism

• Hard Determinism

• Libertarianism

• Compatibilism

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free will?

Jackie knows that her parents want her to become a doctor, but she decides to go into engineering instead.

• determinism

• free will

Multiple Choice

How does the concept of free will relate to moral responsibility?

• Individuals are not accountable for their actions and choices.

• Moral responsibility is determined by external factors.

• Free will has no impact on moral responsibility.

• Individuals are accountable for their actions and choices.

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free will?

Natalie’s parents are both sarcastic and dark-humored people. As an adult, Natalie is also seen by others to have a very dark humor, and to be very sarcastic.

• determinism

• free will

Multiple Choice

According to this philosophical view, believes that if determinism and freedom were incompatible, and determinism were correct, then the belief in freedom would be a mistake.

• Determinism

• Hard Determinism

• Libertarianism

• Compatibilism

Multiple Choice

What type of determinism did Isaac Newton believe in?

• Hard Determinism

• Libertarianism

• Soft Determinism

Multiple Choice

Which Christian denomination accepts Pelagius' free will arguments?

• Mormonism

• Catholicism

• Church of Wales

• Methodism

Explanation Slide...

Determinism is based in the Newtonian paradigm that the universe is governed by immutable laws of nature. If the universe is not mechanical, then the principles of cause and effect are indeterminable, which does not necessarily imply freedom.

Multiple Choice

Humans are to be free in their choices and actions, then these choices and actions should not be determined.

• Natural Freedom

• Social Freedom

Multiple Select

What did Peter Van Inwagen believe?

• It may seem as though we had not choices, we made decisions which brought us here

• Simple behaviour can be controlled by conditioning

• Determinists claim that there are no branches on the road, there is only one set path for each person

• Life is a journey

Multiple Choice

Explain the compatibilist perspective on free will and determinism.

• Compatibilism argues that free will and determinism are mutually exclusive

• Free will is an illusion and everything is predetermined

• Free will and determinism are compatible

• Free will and determinism are completely unrelated

Multiple Choice

Pavlov's Dog's experiments are used to back up the idea of

• libertarianism

• classical conditioning

• animals having free will

• theological determinism

Multiple Choice

Human freedom is the absence of force, constraints, or anything that makes a person act against his/her will or desire

• Natural Freedom

• Social Freedom

Multiple Choice

Which philosopher supports the idea that our actions are conditioned and that we do not actually have freedom?

• B. F. Skinner as a hard determinist

• B. F. Skinner as a soft determinist

• Baruch Spinoza as a libertarian

• Baruch Spinoza as a hard determinist

Multiple Select

Freuds psychoanalytic approach argues that adult behaviour is determined by innate drives and experiences. What type of determinism is this? (pick 2)

• Biological Determinism

• Soft Determinism

• Environmental Determinism

• Psychic Determinism

• Hard Determinism

Explanation Slide...

B. F. Skinner worked on operant conditioning which looked at behaviour in terms of psychological responses to external stimuli.

Multiple Choice

Actions that are determined/ done not to carry out free choices

• Voluntary

• Involuntary

Multiple Select

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle tells us that

• we can know both an object's speed and position at a given time

• measuring an object's speed changes its position

• it is impossible to measure an object's speed or position

• we can know either an object's speed or its position at any given time

• measuring an object's position changes its speed

Multiple Choice

Discuss the implications of determinism for personal autonomy.

• Personal autonomy is strengthened by determinism

• Determinism has no impact on personal autonomy

• Determinism allows for complete freedom of choice

• Determinism challenges the idea of personal autonomy by suggesting that our actions are predetermined by prior causes, limiting our ability to make truly independent choices.

Multiple Choice

Who is known for the theory that denies the existence of free will and says that all thoughts, actions, desires, and physical events are caused by previous events?

• Baruch Spinoza

• John Locke

• Isaac Newton

• John-Paul Sartre

Multiple Choice

Actions that are not determined/ actions done to carry out free choices

• Voluntary

• Involuntary

Explanation Slide...

Spinoza believes this because he is a hard determinist.

Multiple Choice

Which Christian denomination accepts Arminius' free will arguments?

• Mormonism

• Catholicism

• Methodism

• Quakers

Multiple Choice

Based on their libertarian viewpoint, who claimed that freedom is the goal and measure of our lives?

• John Locke

• Werner Heisenberg

• John-Paul Sartre

• Immanuel Kant

Multiple Choice

According to John Locke, why does it appear that we have freedom of choice?

• As a hard determinist, it's because of external factors

• As a hard determinist, it's because of pure reason

• As a hard determinist, it's because of internal forces

• As a hard determinist, it's because the causes of our actions are complex

Multiple Choice

What are some arguments in favor of free will?

• Lack of control over actions

• Pre-determined fate

• Inability to change the course of life

• Personal responsibility, moral accountability, and the ability to make choices based on individual desires and beliefs.

Multiple Choice

According to Voltaire, is everything planned, connected, and limited by something?

• Yes

• No

Explanation Slide...

As a soft determinist, Voltaire makes this claim because "Pear trees cannot bear bananas. The instincts of a spaniel cannot be the instincts of an ostrich. Everything is planned, connected, limited."

Multiple Choice

The impact of conditioning on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Multiple Choice

Thomas Nagel stated, "The sum total of a person’s experiences, desires and knowledge, his hereditary constitution, the social circumstances and the nature of the choice facing him, together with other factors that we may not know about, all combine to make a particular action in the circumstances inevitable."

What viewpoint does he fall under?

• Hard Determinism

• Libertarianism

• Soft Determinism

Multiple Choice

When a desire to sing causes one to sing.

• mental - to - mental

• mental - to - physical

• physical - to - mental

• physical - to - physical

Multiple Choice

How does John B. Watson suggest that behaviour can be controlled?

• Through a combination of internal and external forces, from a hard deterministic viewpoint.

• Through a combination of internal and external forces, from a soft deterministic viewpoint.

• Through random occurrences, from a hard deterministic viewpoint.

• Through random occurrences, from a soft deterministic viewpoint.

Multiple Choice

Explain the concept of hard determinism.

• Hard determinism is the belief that all events are random and have no cause.

• Hard determinism is the concept that some events are determined by previous causes, while others are not.

• All events, including human actions, are determined completely by previously existing causes, and free will is an illusion.

• Hard determinism is the idea that humans have complete free will and are not influenced by external factors.

Multiple Select

Ted Honderich claims that if everything is determined, then the Empiricist conclusions is accurate:

• There is no self which is the origin of your actions

• • The mind is a by-product of brain activity cause by psych-neural events

• • There is no moral responsibility

• • There is no freedom

• There is no soul/afterlife

Multiple Choice

When the burning of the skin causes pain.

• mental - to - mental

• mental - to - physical

• physical - to - mental

• physical - to - physical

Multiple Choice

What was the name given to Augustine's theory?

• Doctrine of Adam and Eve's Sin

• Doctrine of New Sin

• Denial of Original Sin

• Doctrine of Original Sin

Multiple Choice

When one’s belief that it is raining causes one the desire to bring umbrella.

• mental - to - mental

• mental - to - physical

• physical - to - mental

• physical - to - physical

Multiple Choice

How did Clarence Darrow articulate his beliefs as a hard determinist?

• He believed in absolute free will

• He rejected free will in favour of determinism

• He supported a compatibilist view

• He argued for indeterminism

• Raised questions about individual accountability

Multiple Choice

Discuss the role of neuroscience in the debate between determinism and free will.

• Neuroscience provides insights into how brain processes may influence decision-making and behavior.

• Neuroscience proves that free will is an illusion.

• Neuroscience has no impact on the debate between determinism and free will.

• Neuroscience is not a valid field of study for this debate.

Multiple Choice

What term is often associated with Paul-Henri Thiry (Baron) d’Holbach's position on free will and determinism?

• Libertarianism

• Soft Determinism

• Hard Determinism

Multiple Choice

When the cutting of the skin causes the skin to bleed

• mental - to - mental

• mental - to - physical

• physical - to - mental

• physical - to - physical

Multiple Choice

The impact of unsconscious conficts on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Multiple Choice

parallelism

• no - mind view

• no - causation view

• no - freedom view

Multiple Choice

How does the concept of determinism impact the legal system and the concept of punishment?

• Determinism suggests that individuals cannot be held accountable for their actions, challenging the basis of punishment in the legal system.

• Determinism has no impact on the legal system and the concept of punishment.

• Determinism strengthens the concept of punishment in the legal system by suggesting that all actions are predetermined.

• Determinism suggests that punishment should be based on the individual's ability to make choices, not on their actions.

Multiple Choice

unspirited body view

• no - mind view

• no - causation view

• no - freedom view

Multiple Choice

compatibilism

• no - mind view

• no - causation view

• no - freedom view

Multiple Choice

What is the role of consciousness in the debate between free will and determinism?

• Consciousness is not relevant to the debate between free will and determinism.

• Consciousness proves that free will is an illusion.

• Consciousness provides insights into how individuals may perceive their ability to make decisions, influencing the debate between free will and determinism.

• Consciousness is only relevant to the debate between free will and determinism in the context of neuroscience.

Multiple Choice

The impact of genes, hormones, etc. on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Multiple Choice

What was the name of Calvin's predestination theory?

• Doctrine of Original Sin

• Doctrine of Election

• Doctrine of Dort

• Synod of Dort

Multiple Select

All behaviour has a cause and effect. What type of determinism is this?

• Biological Determinism

• Soft Determinism

• Scientific Determinism

• Hard Determinism

Multiple Choice

What is the belief all human behaviour has a cause but we have freedom to make decisions called?

• Free will

• Hard determinism

• Soft determinism

• Variable determinism

Multiple Choice

Which philosopher's theories contributed to Philosophical Determinism?

• Jason Locke

• John Locke

• Thomas Hobbes

• Ivan Pavlov

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free-will?

Jake’s serotonin levels have been a bit low lately. At the same time, his sister notices that he is much more stressed than usual.

• free-will

• determinism

Multiple Choice

Which neuroscience is associated with scientific Libertarianism?

• Dr Angela Sirigu

• Dr Alex George

• Dr Daniel Dennett

• Dr Carl Rogers

Multiple Choice

BF Skinner implied that free will is an 'illusion' due to his belief in __________ determinsm.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Multiple Choice

Who is known for their theory of 'genetic fixity'?

• George Bennett

• Daniel Bennett

• Daniel Dennett

• Daniel George

Multiple Choice

This version allows for some free will. What type of determinism is this?

• Biological Determinism

• Soft Determinism

• Scientific Determinism

• Hard Determinism

Multiple Choice

What did behaviourist Ivan Pavlov carry out his experiments on?

• Humans

• Dogs

• Rats

• Cats

Multiple Select

Which statements are consistent with biological determinism?

• Behaviour is dependent on behavioural factors

• Behaviour is dependent on the effect of hormones and neurotransmitters

• Behaviour is dependent on genes

• Behaviour is dependent on cognitions

Multiple Choice

Which philosopher argued there is no God?

• Augustine

• Jean-Paul Sartre

• Thomas Aquinas

• John Calvin

Multiple Choice

The impact of conditioning on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Multiple Choice

Which of these is a famous religious free will theorist?

• Calvin

• Arminius

• Aristotle

• Augustine

Multiple Choice

The concept of free will is consistent with decision making in everyday life giving it which type of validty?

• Concurrent
• Face
• Internal
• Temporal

Multiple Choice

Holy texts are used as evidence to support what?

• Free Will

• Predestination

• Determinism

• Free Will and Predestination

Multiple Select

Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning What type of determinism is this?

• Psychic Determinism

• Environmental Determinism

• Scientific Determinism

• Hard Determinism

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free-will?

Jake’s serotonin levels have been a bit low lately. At the same time, his sister notices that he is much more stressed than usual.

• free-will

• determinism

Multiple Select

It is doubtful that there will ever be 100% concordance rates for twin studies, this is a problem as...

• It undermines biological determinism

• It suggests that we can't create universal treatments

• It will mean the individual can understand their behaviour better

• It undermines free will

Multiple Choice

The impact of genes, hormones, etc. on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Multiple Choice

There must be some free will as...

• There are treatments that work for all OCD patients

• Bandura recognises that mediational processes are under our control

• The cognitive approach suggest that we have no control over what we pay attention too.

• The motor regions of the brain are making decisions before our conscious brain has recognised it.

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free will?

Natalie’s parents are both sarcastic and dark-humored people. As an adult, Natalie is also seen by others to have a very dark humor, and to be very sarcastic.

• determinism

• free-will

Multiple Select

The value of this approach is that it allows us to make predictions and control human behaviour...

• Free will

• Soft determinism

• Hard determinism

• Environmental determinism

Multiple Choice

What is the belief that all human behaviour has a cause but we have freedom to make decisions called?

• Free will

• Hard determinism

• Soft determinism

• Variable determinism

Multiple Choice

If all our behaviour is controlled by external and internal forces then...

• We should not have a justice system as our behaviour is not under our control

• We should allow people to decide what treatments work best for them

• We should expect people to be able to make sensible and logical decisions

• It would make it hard to predict peoples behaviour

What is the free will versus
determinism debate?

Multiple Choice

The concept of free will is consistent with decision making in everyday life giving it which type of validty?

• Concurrent
• Face
• Internal
• Temporal

Multiple Choice

What type of determinism did Isaac Newton believe in?

• philosophical determinism

• psychological determinism

• scientific determinism

Multiple Select

Brain scan evidence by Libet found that...(pick 2)

• Unconscious brain activity to move came before the pp consciously felt they had decided to move

• Unconscious brain activity to move came after the pp consciously felt they had decided to move

• Our most basic experiences of free will are actually determined

• Our most basic experiences of free will are not determined

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free will?

Natalie’s parents are both sarcastic and dark-humored people. As an adult, Natalie is also seen by others to have a very dark humor, and to be very sarcastic.

• determinism

• free-will

Multiple Choice

One of the problems with hard determinism is that...

• It is inconsistent with our legal system

• It is consistent with our legal system

Multiple Choice

Which one of the following factors is not associated with determinism?

• Law of Universal Causation

• moral self

• hormones

Multiple Choice

Identical twin studies have found that...

• There is an 80% similarity in intelligence scores

• There is a 100% similarity in intelligence scores

• There is a 40% similarity in intelligence scores

Defining the words and the debate

§ Free will is a purported human faculty, existence of which

implies that at least some of our actions originate with
ourselves, in other words we initiate and control them.

§ Determinism is the view that everything that happens is fixed,

i.e. “determined,” by whatever has already happened.

§ Moral responsibility is the view that we can be considered as

accountable for what we do.

§ There is a long-standing debate about these matters, especially

since the rise of early modern science, since determinism
appears to conflict with free will and hence moral responsibility.

Multiple Choice

What is the biggest factor in theological determinism?

• God

• Science

• Morality

• Confidence

(B) Compatibilism:

Free will is

possible

The main views
in the debate

Is determinism

compatible

with free will?

(A) Incompatibilism:

Free will is
impossible

(C) Free will is

possible

Start
Is the cosmos
deterministic?

YES

NO

YES

NO

Multiple Choice

What school of psychology can be seen as the least deterministic?

• humanistic

• biological

• cognitive

• psychodynamic

Multiple Choice

This version allows for some free will. What type of determinism is this?

• Biological Determinism

• Soft Determinism

• Scientific Determinism

• Hard Determinism

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements best tie into theological determinism?

• Everything has a cause for happening, and that cause is the Big Bang.

• God is a woman.

• God is the cause for all things, and he has predetermined our life.

The case for incompatibilism

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is the best example of internal determinism?

• school

• parents

• peer pressure

• hormones

Multiple Choice

There must be some free will as...

• There are treatments that work for all OCD patients

• Bandura recognises that mediational processes are under our control

• The cognitive approach suggest that we have no control over what we pay attention too.

• The motor regions of the brain are making decisions before our conscious brain has recognised it.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is the best example of external determinism?

• hormones

• neurotransmitter

• school

• subconscious

Incompatibilism

§ Incompatibilism is the position that a deterministic universe is

completely at odds with the notion that people have a free will.

§ In a modern sense determinism roughly means the following:

“The world is governed by (or is under the sway of) determinism if
and only if, given a specified way things are at a particular time,
the way things go thereafter is fixed as a matter of natural law.”

Hoefer, Carl, "Causal Determinism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2016 Edition), Edward N.

Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/determinism-causal/

Multiple Choice

Is the following statement determinism or free will?

Jenna has returned to the bank only to find out that a robbery was in progress. She acts like she has control over her actions to protect others from further harm.

• free will

• determinism

Multiple Choice

The psychological concept of free-will sees humans as _____________.

• Selfie takers

• Self-deluded

• Self-determined

• Self-interested

Multiple Choice

T/F: libertarianism believes in the idea of moral responsibility.

• True

• False

Incompatibilism

§ According to an incompatibilist, whatever goes on after time t is

fixed by whatever has already gone on up to and including time
t. One cannot choose to do other than what one does at time t.

§ Since it is quite widely believed that free will requires the ability

to do other than one does, and since determinism excludes this
possibility, determinism and free will are incompatible.

§ On this account, anyone who thinks philosophically about the

world must choose to believe either in determinism or in free
will but not in both (although of course, on this view plus
determinism, there is only the illusion of choice).

Multiple Choice

T/F: Moral responsibility helps explain why people think that what they choose to do is ethically acceptable.

• True

• False

Multiple Choice

The impact of unsconscious conficts on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Compatibility with physics?

§ Determinism seems to align well with how physics has

described the world since the rise of early-modern science,
especially the success of Newton’s Law of Gravitation and his
Laws of Motion in predicting the movements of the planets.

§ On this account, the solar system is usually modelled as the

sum of the orbits of each planet, assuming that each planet is
only attracted by the sun. Applying Newton’s laws, if we know
all the relevant initial conditions (positions, masses, velocities)
at time t, we know where the planets will be after time t.

§ These orbits are indeed (almost) perfectly predictable and

machine-like. Hence, in the 18th century, the known solar
system was often modelled like a machine, an “Orrery”.

Multiple Choice

The impact of conditioning on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

3/25/24

Joseph Wright of Derby, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery
(in which a lamp is put in place of the sun), c. 1763-65

Page 10

Multiple Choice

The impact of genes, hormones, etc. on behaviour is an example _____________ determinism.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

Reducibility to deterministic components

§ In the case of the solar system, the system as a whole can be

treated, almost, as the sum of all the behaviours of all the
planets separately, i.e. assuming that one can neglect the
interactions of the planets on one another. In this case, it is
almost true that the whole is the sum of the parts.

§ In these situations, we say that the system is reducible to the

sum of its parts, and each part, namely each planet-sun
component, has a machine-like, deterministic orbit.

§ From this example, the conclusion is often drawn that other

complex systems, including chemical and living systems, are
also reducible to their parts. And if the parts are all machine-
like and deterministic, and the whole is the sum of the
parts, then the whole is also ultimately deterministic.

Multiple Choice

BF Skinner implied that free will is an 'illusion' due to his belief in __________ determinsm.

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Environmental
• Psychic

§ Incompatibilism appears to be compatible with science or even

required by science (or at least 18thcentury science) and is
quite widely believed by philosophers and many others.

§ Even though incompatibilism implies the need to jettison belief

in free will, except as a convenient illusion, other possibilities
open up. For example, we can try to treat human beings in a
similar way to Newtonian systems in physics, namely by
measuring external variables and looking for patterns and laws.
This thinking gave rise to behaviourism in psychology.

§ Influential incompatibilists include Baruch Spinoza, John B.

Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and Ted Honderich.

3/25/24
Page 12

The case for
incompatibilism

​The case for incompatibilism

Multiple Select

Which statements are consistent with biological determinism?

• Behaviour is dependent on behavioural factors

• Behaviour is dependent on the effect of hormones and neurotransmitters

• Behaviour is dependent on genes

• Behaviour is dependent on cognitions

Pavlov’s dogs

§ Behaviourism explains human and

animal behaviour in terms of external
conditioning, without appeal to thoughts
or feelings. Whatever one thinks that one
thinks or feels does not matter anyway,
on an incompatibilist view.

§ One of the most famous behaviourist

experiments was that of Pavlov’s dogs.
Ivan Pavlov successfully conditioned
dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell,
having previously conditioned the dogs
by associating this sound with being fed.

Ivan Pavlov, 1849-1936

(source: Wiki, unknown origin)

Multiple Choice

The concept of free will is consistent with decision making in everyday life giving it which type of validty?

• Concurrent
• Face
• Internal
• Temporal

The death of life and free will?

§ Given the apparent success of machine-like metaphors for the

world, and the ability to condition even living things to respond
automatically to stimuli, it has seemed to many that we no
longer really need a concept of life, or mind, or the will.
Everything is simply a very complex machine, and what
appears to us as life or choice is simply an illusion.

§ These themes are explored in another picture from the 18th

century by Joseph Wright of Derby, An Experiment on a Bird in
the Air Pump, in which a bird is suffocated as viewers watch.

§ Examine this picture on the next slide and ask yourself, “What

does the scene in this picture look like?” It should remind you of
a scene in some of the pictures seen on cards once a year.

The case for
incompatibilism

Multiple Choice

Which of these approaches do not believe in determinsim?

• Behaviourism

• SLT

• Cogntive approach

• Biological approach

• Humanistic approach

An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump

1768 oil-on-canvas painting by Joseph Wright of Derby

Multiple Select

All believers in determinism reject free will

• True

• False

The case for compatibilism

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Multiple Select

Which of these approaches reject hard determinism?

• Behaviourism

• SLT

• Cogntive approach

• Biological approach

• Psychodynamic approach

Compatibilism

§ Compatibilism is the thesis that free will is compatible with

determinism. This position encompasses a variety of views,
and the arguments with incompatibilists are ongoing.

§ Since free will is usually taken as a condition of moral

responsibility, compatibilism is also sometimes described as
thesis of the compatibility of determinism and responsibility.

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The case for
compatibilism

Multiple Select

Which of the following (select up to 5 answers) apply to the cogntive approach?

• Determinism

• Hard determinism

• Soft determinism

• Psychic determinism

• Biological determinism

Versions of compatibilism (1)

§ The earliest version of compatibilism involves defining free will

in terms of a positive component, namely doing what one
inclines to do, and a negative component, namely being
unimpeded in doing what one inclines to do. This position is
most closely associated with Thomas Hobbes.

§ Determinism is compatible with both these components, and

hence is compatible with free will.

§ Objectors to this position challenge whether what is meant by

“free will” can legitimately be reduced to these components. For
example, can someone who acts unimpeded as a result of a
mental illness really be considered to have free will?

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The case for
compatibilism

Versions of compatibilism (2)

§ Free will is usually associated with the ability to do other than

one does. Unlike in Hobbes’ account, compatibilists and
incompatibilists today usually assume this premise.

§ A more modern argument for compatibilism is that determinism

is a thesis about what must happen in the future given the
actual past. Hence, determinism is consistent with the future
being different given a different past, and therefore it is possible
to choose to do other than one does.

§ A modern objection is that an agent is still determined at the

time of action to have the desires that she has, and therefore is
unable to do other than she does in the relevant sense.

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The case for
compatibilism

Three contributions from the 1960s

§ According to the Consequence Argument, no one has power

over the laws of nature or the facts of the past, or (by
determinism) over the future. So, by determinism, no one has
power over the future, implying there is no effective free will.

§ Harry Frankfurt attacked the Principle of Alternative

Possibilities (PAP), giving counterexamples in which someone
is morally responsible even though unable to do otherwise.

§ Peter Strawson argued that we react not just to actions but

perceived intentions in other people and we ascribe moral
responsibility on this basis. It would be practically impossible to
imagine how these reactions could be discarded in real life.

§ Debates arising from these contributions are ongoing.

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The case for
compatibilism

The case for denying
universal determinism

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Page 21

The missing option

§ As noted previously, Strawson underlined the practical

impossibility of denying moral responsibility, which is closely
associated with belief in free will. Also as noted previously, the
possibility of the compatibility of determinism with free will is
still a matter of active debate.

§ But is this debate really the right one to focus on? Not all of the

natural world seems so deterministic as the orbits of planets in
the solar system. There is also spontaneity, as in radioactive
decay and other phenomena in quantum mechanics.

§ Although animals can be conditioned, like Pavlov’s dogs, they

also often exhibit what look like actions that are voluntary and
selected from diverse possibilities. Animals of the same
species can also show diverse characteristic behaviours.

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The case for denying
universal determinism

Pavlov’s dogs, or any dogs, can do much
more than salivate to the sound of bells

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Dogs playing

The case for denying
universal determinism

Spontaneity in nature

Dandelion seeds being
distributed by the wind

Source: Bigstock ID: 283640485

Copyright: gan chaonan

The case for denying
universal determinism

The glow of spontaneous nuclear decays

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The reactor pool at the High Flux Isotope Reactor, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, United States.

The case for denying
universal determinism

Is determinism an illusion?

§ Modern determinism started with the success of Newton’s laws,

which can be used to compute the orbits of planets. The orbits
appear deterministic enough that the solar system can be
modelled quite well as a machine.

§ Setting aside these special cases, however, a lot of things

behave as if they initiate action, not just because of prior
conditions. For example, as noted above, dogs select actions
when they play; winds blow seeds in random directions; and
nuclear decays can only be predicted statistically at best.

§ Some things in nature seem deterministic, but not all.

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The case for denying
universal determinism

Is determinism an illusion?

§ … and even modelling the solar system as a machine is not

quite correct. The mathematics only work perfectly if each pair
of interactions of a planet and the sun can be treated in
isolation from all other interactions, especially by neglecting the
much smaller gravitational pull of the planets on one another.

§ If we try to include all the interactions, it is impossible to

integrate the forces to produce an equation of motion
connecting past, present, and future. We can generate good
approximations but they are never completely correct.

§ The picture of the world governed by Newtonian mechanics is

really that of an approximation, a useful but simple idealisation.

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The case for denying
universal determinism

Complex ‘chaotic’ systems

§ In recent decades, since the work of Edward Lorenz, we have

started to built approximate simulations of some of these
complex systems, which are so common in nature.

§ One thing we have learned is rather surprising. Many complex

systems evolve towards final states, rather like the way in
which living and growing things develop into final forms (called
‘strange attractors’). On this account, many things in nature
appear more biological than mechanical in their behaviour.

§ This fact, in itself, does not disprove determinism, but it shows

that causation in nature is more complex than the pushes and
pulls of machines. Indeed, it may be more appropriate to think
of the cosmos by the metaphor of a garden than a machine.

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The case for denying
universal determinism

From left to right: the ‘strange attractor’ of the Lorenz

equations; a snowflake; and a single flower

(Source: public domain images)

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Examples of the vast range of self-
organising systems in nature

More than machines?

§ Another way to think of this problem is to challenge reducibility,

i.e. the assumption that biology reduces to chemistry, which
reduces to physics. And since the simplest systems in physics
seem deterministic, everything is deterministic.

§ But it is unclear that it is valid to make this assumption. The

laws of physics describe mathematical ideals, namely simple
systems isolated from all other influences. But an atom that is
part of a complex structure, such as a rhinoceros or a man, is
certainly not isolated, but behaves as part of these beings.

§ For example, the motion of an atom on the tip of the horn of a

rhinoceros is best understood in terms of the behaviours and
decisions of the rhinoceros.

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The case for denying
universal determinism

Does the carbon atom at the tip of the horn of a rhinoceros behave like a free

atom in space? Or does it behave like an atom embedded in a rhinoceros,

moving according to the voluntary actions of the rhinoceros?

The situation today

§Belief in determinism is linked to the success of early-modern
physics, and it remains true that many systems can be
modelled successfully in this way, to a good approximation.

§BUT contemporary physics has also underlined that many
other systems cannot be modelled in this way, as a sum of
simple deterministic systems. Atoms in snowflakes, or
flowers, or animals, behave as parts of these wholes,
exhibiting both end-directed behaviour and spontaneity.

§People will no doubt continue to believe in determinism, but
such a belief should NOT be treated as one that is
‘determined’ by physics, so that alternatives are impossible.
The cosmos is arguably more like a garden than a machine.

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The case for denying
universal determinism

Theological determinism?

Determinism and theology

§The purported benevolent divine direction of the cosmos and
human affairs is often called providence, drawn from the Latin
providere, meaning to ‘foresee, attend to’.

§In Christianity, the divine direction of a life towards salvation
in heaven is often called predestination, from the Latin
praedestinare, meaning to ‘make firm beforehand.’

§At least since the 16thcentury among Christians, there have
been some long-standing disputes about predestination. In
particular, if God directs a person to heaven, is this an
infallible divine determinism? In other words, can anything
that the person does influence or change this destiny?

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Theological
determinism?

The logical problem

§If it is said that there is divine determinism, this preserves
belief about the omnipotence of God at the cost of overriding
any exercise of free will about one’s ultimate fate.

§On the other hand, if it said that human beings can and do
exercise free will about their ultimate fate, then this appears
to place God in a subordinate position. In addition, how can
one desire ultimate goodness without already being good?

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Theological
determinism?

Finding new perspectives from stories (I)

§One way of trying to resolve this problem is to look at the
actual working out of salvation in particular stories.

§For example, inspired by 1 Corinthians 10:1-4, one can
regard the story of the Book of Exodus in the Old Testament
as the story of the salvation of souls from Baptism (crossing
the Red Sea) to the kingdom of heaven (the Promised Land).

§All the souls in the account are directed to salvation, which is
an extended process taking forty years in the story. Divine
action initiates and direct the journey, but the choices of
human beings also count decisively. In practice, the majority
of people who start the journey do not finish.

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Theological
determinism?

Finding new perspectives from stories (I)

§Another story of salvation is the Parable of the Sower, which
is told by Jesus Christ in the New Testament:

“A sower went out to sow. And as he sowed, some seeds fell
along the path, and the birds came and devoured them. Other
seeds fell on rocky ground, where they had not much soil,
and immediately they sprang up, since they had no depth of
soil, but when the sun rose they were scorched; and since
they had no root they withered away. Other seeds fell upon
thorns, and the thorns grew up and choked them. Other
seeds fell on good soil and brought forth grain, some a
hundredfold, some sixty, some thirty.”

Matthew 13:1-23. Cf. also Mark 4:1-20 and Luke 8:1-15.

The text here is from Matthew, using the Revised Standard Version translation

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Theological
determinism?

Source: By Pieter Brueghel the Elder - The Yorck Project (2002) 10.000 Meisterwerke der

Malerei (DVD-ROM), distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. ISBN:

3936122202, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=148461

The Parable of the Sower

Finding new perspectives from stories (I)

§As in the case of Exodus, this parable is about salvation. The
growth of the plants would be absolutely impossible without
the divine intervention of sowing the seed.

§BUT the drama is one in which the state of the ground and
hence human responsiveness plays a role. There are
unsuccessful as well as successful outcomes.

§The degrees of fruitfulness also hint at the notion that diverse
ground, given the same seed, bears different quantities of
fruit, implying also that one’s choices within the Christian life
generate diverse blessedness in the kingdom of heaven.

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Theological
determinism?

Organic metaphors

§As in the case of the shift in models from being machine-like
to more organic, perhaps also divine predestination needs to
be imagined more in organic rather than formal terms.

§Both Exodus and the parable of the sower imply that divine
action is absolutely primary. But human action also plays a
role, especially the need for consent to the divine will.

§In addition, everyone in both stories is directed to salvation,
as implied by the notion of predestination, but not all attain it.
In theology, this category is incomplete predestination.

§As a parallel, one can think of the organic metaphor of a
plant. All the matter of the plant is directed to its fruitfulness,
but plants can still wither or be cut off before bearing fruit.

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Theological
determinism?

Conclusions

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Page 41

Concluding remarks

§ Belief in the determinism of the world, encouraged by early

modern science, or belief in the theological determinism of God
have both seemed to override any role for free will. Allowing a
role for free will seems to give rise to impossible problems.

§ The underlying problem in both cases may really be a narrow

way of imagining the world. If we imagine the world as being
like a machine, then only the previous actions of the machine
and its designer are important in determining what happens.

§ New developments in science and a renewed appreciation of

Biblical stories and parables feed our imaginations in different
ways. Created beings, like life in a garden, have their own
proper causal actions, and divine action can perhaps be better
thought of as the work of a gardener than a watch-maker.

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Conclusions

Further reading and viewing

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Further reading
and viewing

Short videos (on providence)

3-minute video by the Ian Ramsey Centre:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ktz-KVmsKV8

1-minute cartoon by the Ian Ramsey Centre, “Albert Explores”:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dN9YhngPNGI

Bibliography and further reading

Hoefer, Carl, "Causal Determinism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2016 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/determinism-causal/

Newman, John Henry, ‘A Particular Providence as Revealed in the Gospel’, in Parochial and Plain Sermons,
Revised ed. edition (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1997), p. vol. 3, sermon 9.
http://www.newmanreader.org/works/parochial/volume3/sermon9.html

Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden

by Jan Brueghel the Elder

(Source: Public domain)

Creation: more like a
garden than a machine?
Treat it responsibly