Untitled Lesson

The Periodization
of Indian History

On the basis of shared characteristics, history has been broadly

divided into three periods—ancient, medieval and modern. British

historians of the colonial era divided Indian history into three periods

—Hindu Period, Muslim Period and Modern Period. The argument

behind this periodization was that the change in the religion of the

rulers was the only important historical change, and there were no

other significant changes whatsoever. However, this is not

considered true now, as it ignores the social as well as cultural

changes that took place during these periods. Moreover, it tends to

divide history solely on the basis of the religion of the rulers.

by Ramoji Cherukuri

Ancient Period in India and
Europe

1

Ancient India

In India, the ancient period stretches roughly from around 7000 BCE,

when the early Neolithic settlers learned farming and settled down, to

700 CE, just after the death of Harshvardhana.

2

Ancient Europe

In European history, the ancient period begins with the invention of

the cuneiform writing system in Sumer, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)

about 5500 years ago and the period stretches up to 476 CE.

Medieval Period in India

Early Medieval Period

The medieval period in India coincides with

the disintegration of Harsha's empire into

several regional kingdoms and the rise of a

warrior clan by the name of Rajputs. It

stretches till about 1700 CE. The Early

Medieval Period (700 CE-1200 CE) was

characterized by the rule of the Hindu

Rajputs.

Later Medieval Period

The Later Medieval Period (1200 CE-1700 CE)

started with the advent of the Turks in India

and ended with the disintegration of the

Mughal empire and consolidation of British

rule in India.

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Medieval Period in Europe

1

Byzantine Empire

The medieval period in Europe

started around 500 CE, with the

rise of the Byzantine empire—the

Eastern Roman empire—with its

capital at Constantinople.

2

Renaissance

It ended with the Renaissance

around 1400 CE, when new ideas

of art and classical learning of the

Romans and the Greeks swept

through Europe.

Modern Period in India and
Europe

1

India

The Modern Period in India is assumed to have started in the 1700s,

with the advent of industrialization during the late British colonial rule.

Politically, the British were trying to consolidate their power in India at

the same time, as India was a tremendous source of raw materials and

a market for the finished products of the British Empire.

2

Europe

On the contrary, the modern period in Europe started in the 1400s.

European voyagers like Marco Polo searched for new routes by sea to

India during this period. With this, the colonization of India and other

Asian territories by the Europeans started.

Continuity Between Historical
Periods

Significant Changes

British historians were of the view

that no significant changes occurred

in the medieval period and that the

modern period is when most

intellectual and material progress

happened. However, this is not true

as significant changes took place in

the medieval period in India as well.

Zenith of Art and Trade

India reached the zenith of art,

architecture and trade during the

medieval period. In fact, it was the

administrative system put in place

by the Mughals that formed the basis

of the British administrative system

in later years.

Continuity

So, we can say that there is continuation between one period of history and

another, even though periodization of the history of different places starts at

different times, as events at one place influence the happenings at other places.

Studying History Through Maps

Al-Idrisi's Map

Map 1 was drawn by the Arab

(Moroccan) geographer and

cartographer Muhammad al-

Idrisi in 1154 CE. It was the

most accurate map of its

time, showing the entire

Indian subcontinent with the

legend written in Arabic.

Peutinger's Map

Map 2 was copied by

Peutinger—a French

cartographer—in 1508 CE. It is

a medieval copy of an ancient

Roman map, showing

topographical details from the

Roman Empire to the east of

India, though the

interpretation is not accurate.

Jansson's Map

Map 3 of the Indian

subcontinent was drawn by

Flemish cartographer, Jan

Jansson in 1658 CE. It looks

similar to modern maps of

India and was used in various

voyages undertaken by the

Dutch seamen during that

period.

Use of New Terminologies

1

Language Evolution

Historical records have been

preserved in many languages that

have changed considerably over

time. For example, the form of

Hindi called Hindustani spoken in

the 13th century is very different

from its modern form.

2

Changing Meanings

The ancient name of India,

Bharatvarsha, included present-

day India, Pakistan, Nepal,

Afghanistan and Bangladesh. But

the modern name Bharat

Ganarajya does not correspond to

the same political extent.

Similarly, the term Hindustan used

by Persian chroniclers meant

lands of the Delhi Sultanate, not

all of South India.

3

Interpretations

When Babur used the term Hind, he referred to the geographical area, flora,

fauna and lifestyle of the people. So while deciphering manuscripts, historians

have to be careful about interpretations, variations in meaning and contexts in

which terms were used.

Sources for Studying Medieval
History

Literary Sources

During the medieval period,

kings appointed scribes and

court poets who described

life in royal courts and

achievements of kings in

detail. Works like Prithviraj

Raso by Chand Bardai give

insights into medieval life.

Inscriptions

Inscriptions became more

about praising deeds of

kings during this period,

written on copper plates

rather than stone. They

provide valuable information

about rulers and dynasties.

Coins

Coins issued by Rajput

dynasties, Turks, Afghans

and Mughals are an

important source,

containing details like

names of rulers, dates and

seals through the study of

numismatics.

Miniature Paintings

Art Form

Miniature paintings

flourished as an

exquisite art form

during the medieval

period, especially

under Mughals and

Rajputs. They used

vivid colors and

minute details.

Illustrations

Some miniatures

were used to

illustrate texts like

Ramayana,

Mahabharata and

Puranas. Later, the

text was erased,

preserving just the

paintings.

Musical
Themes

The Ragamala series

of miniatures

depicting musical

notes or ragas was

very popular.

Court Life

Popular themes

included scenes from

royal courts, hunts,

gardens and other

aspects of courtly life

under medieval

rulers.

Scribes and Chroniclers

1

Court Historians

Scribes and chroniclers were

court historians and writers who

copied many literary works from

original manuscripts.

2

Scholarly Accounts

Some were scholars who studied

administration of rulers and wrote

detailed accounts, like Al-Beruni's

Kitab al-Hind about India during

Mahmud of Ghazni's rule.

3

Changing Scripts

As manuscripts were hand-copied over centuries, scribes sometimes added

words based on interpretation. Calligraphy styles like Nastaliq and Shikaste

also evolved, altering the original texts.

New Inventions

Persian Wheel

The Persian wheel, a wheel

attached to a well for

irrigation, was introduced

during the medieval period.

Gunpowder

The Mughals introduced the

toup or cannon, a new firearm

that helped them overcome

large Rajput and Turkish

armies.

Cuisine

New types of food, dress and

beverages were introduced.

Regional cuisines like

Lucknawi and Mughlai

developed.

Emergence of Political Groups

Rajputs

The Rajputs, who called themselves Kshatriya

descendants, became important between the

8th and 14th centuries. Some became rulers

of different parts of India, known for bravery

and warfare skills.

Other Groups

Other groups like Marathas, Ahoms, Jats,

Sikhs and Kayasthas also gained political

prominence, setting up their own kingdoms

and maintaining distinct identities, like the

Sikhs fighting the Mughals.

Social Changes

1

Displacement

With new irrigation technology and deforestation, many forest dwellers and tribal

communities were displaced from their lands, migrating to new places.

2

New Occupations

Some displaced groups took up new occupations, while others became part of the

complex social structure as peasants, paying taxes though not owning land.

3

Caste System

Differences emerged among various castes and sub-castes called jatis, ranked by

occupation. Their ranks varied based on power and influence in different regions.

New Social Groups

1

Kayasthas

A new social group

called Kayasthas

emerged, working as

scribes and secretaries

in royal courts of kings

and sultans.

2

Jati Panchayats

Different jatis or sub-

castes framed their

own rules enforced by

Jati Panchayats,

though still under the

village administration.

3

Mobility

According to a theory,

Kayasthas migrated

from northern India

and settled in central

India or Kaya-desha,

synonymous with

Ayodhya.

Summary of Previous Slides

Introduction of
the Persian
Wheel

A new irrigation

technology, the

Persian wheel, was

introduced during the

medieval period in

India.

Gunpowder and
Cannons

The Mughals

introduced the toup

or cannon, a new

firearm that helped

them overcome large

Rajput and Turkish

armies.

Emergence of
Regional
Cuisines

New types of food,

dress and beverages

were introduced,

leading to the

development of

regional cuisines like

Lucknawi and

Mughlai.

Rise of the
Rajputs

The Rajputs became

an influential group,

known for their

bravery and warfare

skills, ruling over

different parts of

India.

Displacement
of Forest
Dwellers

Many forest dwellers

and tribal

communities were

displaced from their

lands due to new

irrigation technology

and deforestation,

migrating to new

places.

Emergence of
the Kayasthas

A new social group

called Kayasthas

emerged, working as

scribes and

secretaries in royal

courts of kings and

sultans.