In skeletal muscle tissues, the cell membrane Na/K ATPase controls the interstitial fluid sodium concentration

Parathyroid hormone stimulates the activity of calcium ATPase in both the renal epithelial and intestinal epithelial cellsfluid sodium concentration

At the renal collecting ducts, both the trans-epithelial secretion and trans-epithelial

reabsorption of potassium requires ATPase activity.

The cardiac glycosides act on myocardium Na/K ATPase to reduce the sodium trans­ membrane gradient which then leads to increased intracellular calcium concentration

Both the sensors for changes in plasma calcium or plasma potassium are located in the endocrine glands that secrete parathyroid hormone and aldosterone respectively

Both total plasma calcium and plasma potassium can be increased by acidosis

Both calcium and potassium balance are not under homeostatic control by the hypothalamus-pituitary axis

Both hypercalcemia and hypokalemia will decrease the skeletal muscle contractile response

Potassium efflux at the ascending loop of Henle contributes to an electrical gradient that drives calcium reabsorption

If pre-synaptic inhibition occurs at an inhibitory synapse, the amplitude of the inhibitory postsynaptic potential will be reduced

Spatial summation of a Glycine and a GABA neuron will produce a larger inhibitory post synaptic potential

Temporal summation at the alpha motor neuron by a supra-threshold stimulus will produce a larger EPSP at the axon hillock

At the sensory neuron, both increased chloride flux or decreased potassium flux at the membrane can hyperpolarize the cell body

At the neuromuscular junction, during excitation-contraction coupling, calcium enters passively into the cytoplasm of the nerve terminal and also passively into the cytoplasm of the muscle fiber

In hypervolemia, the Bainbridge reflex can take priority over the baroreflex to increase the heart rate

Adrenaline decreases the end-systolic volume (ESV) for a given end-diastolic volume whereas the intrinsic stretch/tension property of the ventricle muscle does not affect the ESV

Both deep inspiration and a Valsalva effort led to tachycardia

If SA node is unaffected, compensation for hypovolemia will always produce a tachycardia but not always an increased stroke volume above normal

During exercise, the cardiac sympathetic nerve reduces the R-8, ECG interval and increases the duration of the pacemaker potential

Passive filling of ventricles occurs during the T-P segment in the ECG

The membrane potential of the ventricles is most positive during the S-T segment

During the S-T segment, the voltage-gated potassium channels are opened

A positive inotropic effect is reflected in a higher QRS amplitude

The pulmonary valve closes just after the T wave

In the graph showing the volume/pressure ventricular loop, the ejected volume during systole is represented by the width of the loop

Both the 1^st and 2^nd heart sounds are heard just before an iso-volumetric ventricular' phase

All skeletal muscle metabolites which are vasoactive lower vascular resistance

The myogenic response of the cerebral vasculature involves voltage-gated calcium channels

During exercise, noradrenergic sympathetic action increases the pulse pressure via its action on the cardiac pump and on the arterioles

GFR is equal to the excreted load of Inulin divided by the plasma concentration of inulin

An increase in renal filtration fraction will increase the oncotic pressure but decrease the hydrostatic pressure in the peritubular capillary

During hypervolemia, the paracrine vasoconstrictor from the macula densa and the paracrine signal from the macula densa that inhibits the renin secretion are released at the same time

In a university in Spain, a medical student who volunteers for a 48 hr complete fast will develop hypotonic contraction of her extracellular fluid

In severe diarrhea, the renal clearance of bicarbonate can be zero ml/min

By definition, for the urine concentrating mechanism in the renal medulla, the fluid in ascending loop of Henle is countercurrent to the blood in the descending vasa recta

A student reviewed her renal handling of glucose graphically(lines of filtered, excreted and reabsorbed glucose shown) and marked the renal plasma threshold for, glucose as a point along the y axis

At the proximal convoluted tubule, filtered potassium passively diffuses down its concentration gradient that is generated by iso-osmotic water reabsorption

At the nephrons, carbonic anhydrase inhibitor will decrease both the filtered bicarbonate reabsorption and the synthesis of bicarbonate

Osmolar clearance is equal to the urine flow rate when the urine osmolarity is equal to the plasma osmolarity

Osmoreceptors that are located in the hypothalamus are involved in sodium concentration control

Maintenance of sodium balance involves the function of mechano-receptors located in both the kidneys and the heart

Water reabsorption that occurs in the parts of the juxtamedullary nephrons are all driven by the hyperosmotic interstitium established by the counter current mechanism

During negative water balance, the water reabsorbed from both the descending loop of Henle and the collecting ducts enter the ascending vasa recta

Hypertonic expansion of ECF increases the vasopressin secretion less than hypertonic contraction

At extreme high altitude, the effect of alkalosis takes priority over the effect of 2,3 DPG on the hemoglobin-O affinity interactions

The rate of CO₂ delivered to the lungs is equal to the cardiac output multiply by the venous CO₂ content

During a jog around Universitas Indonesia, the arterial PCO₂ is determined by the ratio of the rate of cell production of CO₂ over the alveolar ventilation

During the East Java Marathon, Dr Strong's blood PCO₂ decreased due to a stimulation of her carotid bodies by blood pH changes

Bohr's effect is indicated by a leftward shift of the hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve when the partial pressure of CO2 is less than 40mmHg

The distending pressure that expands the alveolus is calculated as the difference between the intra-alveolar pressure and the intra-pleural pressure

The lung compliance increases from residual volume to the total lung capacity

The intra-alveolar pressure at residual volume is the same as the intra-alveolar pressure at total lung capacity

Relative to the blood flow, the alveoli at the apex of the upright lungs are over­ventilated when compared to the alveoli at the base

At the base of the upright lungs, the alveolar ventilation is more than at the apex but the alveolar partial pressure of CO2 at the basal alveoli is higher than at the apex

Increased frequency of alpha motor neuron action potentials produce a tetanic summation for greater muscle tension

The gamma motor neuron activity is proportional to the skeletal muscle length

If the person is just taking a walk around the park, the Golgi tendon organ does not serve its physiologic function

Sympathetic activity can increase the end-diastolic volume by decreasing venous capacitance

The ventilation /perfusion ratio at the apex of the lungs decreases as airflow and blood flow are better matched

Non-rotational acceleration are detected by mechanoreceptors in the utricle and saccule

By definition, in the auditory physiology, bone conduction involves the conduction of sound via the ossicles

Stimulation of the efferent fibers to the outer hair cells in the cochlea reduces the basilar membrane vibration

A higher amplitude of sound waves is associated with an increased frequency of action potential in a single auditory nerve

Meissner corpuscles and Merkel cells are both cutaneous mechanoreceptors with small receptive fields for more precise sensory localization

The retina ganglion cells are uniquely hyperpolarized when light is sensed by the retina

At the fovea, there is the least neural convergence which accounts for the maximal visual acuity

Presbyopia is due to loss of lens elasticity and thus the ability to focus divergent rays from near objects and presbyopia can be corrected with convex lenses

Lateral Inhibition occurs at the bipolar cell layer of the retina

In the dark, the photoreceptors release the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA

Slow oxidative motor units have small alpha motor neurons but a high density of capillaries

Closing of potassium channels in excitable cells can also lead to a depolarizing potential but at the vestibular hair cells, opening of potassium channels produce a depolarization

Gamma motor fiber have conduction speed that is faster than that of the Pacinian afferent fiber

Under physiologic conditions, both potassium and chloride have negative equilibrium potential

The endings of nociceptive sensory neurons respond to noxious thermal, mechanical and chemical stimuli via non-selective, cation channels also called transient receptor potential channels

Neutralization of gastric chyme by the pancreatic juice also helps to inhibit gastric emptying for optimal digestion in the duodenum

Smooth muscle plasticity is exhibited by both the stomach and the vascular arterioles of the splanchnic circulation

The swallowing center in the brainstem also initiates the secondary peristalsls in the esophagus in the event of any gastro-esophageal reflux

The gastric luminal pH during the inter-digestive period is less than when eating a high protein diet

Action of the hormone GIP inhibits gastric acid secretion and increases the plasma insulin/glucagon ratio

Simultaneous depolarizing and hyperpolarizing actions of different neurotransmitters in the enteric nervous system determine the unidirectional peristalsis in the intestine

Water reabsorption by the intestinal epithelial and by the proximal convoluted renal epithelial cells both occur by iso-osmotic reabsorption

If the stomach is denervated, the parietal cell acid secretion can still be stimulated by acetylcholine neurotransmitter

Removal of the ileum can cause excretion of fatty stools and decreased synthesis of bile salts

Lactose intolerance and glucosuria reduce water reabsorption at the respective intestinal and renal epithelial cells respectively by the same osmotic mechanisms

Plasma aldosterone is increased in both isotonic contraction and hypertonic contraction of the ECF

In acromegaly, glucosuria is due to a lowering of the renal plasma threshold for glucose

During fasting, the hormone ghrelin can stimulate the secretion of growth hormone

During exercise, increased thyroid hormones produce the cutaneous vasodilation in order to maintain body temperature

Somatostatin inhibits the secretion of the hyperglycemic growth hormone and it also inhibits the secretion of the hypoglycemic insulin

During suckling by the baby, the neuroendocrine reflexes stimulate hormones from both the anterior and posterior pituitary

Both corticotrophin and corticotrophin releasing hormone exhibit similar circadian secretion patterns

Adaptation to cold environment includes increased pituitary thyrotrophin secretion and decreased autonomic sympathetic activity to the skin

In primary hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone, there is both increased maximal reabsorption of calcium and increased excretion of calcium above normal

IIn hypersecretion of mineralocorticoids, the hypokalemia is due to both increased renal tubular secretion of potassium and the effect of metabolic alkalosislosis

The ovum secretes enzymes to inactivate sperm receptor binding on the zona pellucida in order to prevent polyspermy

The maternal uterine tissues secrete the hormone HCG in order to maintain the corpus luteum during pregnancy

The placental estrogen and progesterone synthesis are NOT under the control of maternal pituitary glands

The hormone HCG stimulates testosterone secretion from Leydig cells in the male fetus

Near the time of ovulation, the penetrability of the cervical canal is highest since the high oestrogen levels make the cervical mucus thin