Structures in the Nasopharynx:

    •    Pharyngeal —— (adenoids):腺样体 Lymphoid tissue involved in —— response.

    •    Torus tubarius: A cartilaginous elevation surrounding the opening of the Eustachian tube.

    •    Salpingopharyngeal fold: A fold of tissue that extends —— from the torus tubarius, containing the salpingopharyngeus muscle, which helps open the Eustachian tube during swallowing.

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Function of the nasopharynx

    •    Conducts air from the nasal cavity to the ——— and ———.

    •    The Eustachian tubes help balance pressure in the middle ear.

    •    The pharyngeal tonsils help detect and respond to airborne ———.

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Adenoid hypertrophy (enlarged adenoids) can obstruct the airway and cause breathing difficulties, sleep ———, and —— infections.

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The ——— and ——— are supported by C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage.

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The rings are open at the ———, facing the esophagus, and connected by the trachealis muscle.

 This muscle allows for flexibility and ———- during coughing or swallowing.

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Trachea rings keep the airway open during ———- and ———

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The trachealis muscle allows the trachea to adjust ———— during coughing to expel foreign material.

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Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) are immune cells located within the ——— of the lungs.

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Alveolar macrophages ——— and digest debris, ———, and dead cells.

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Alveolar macrophages Release inflammatory ——— to recruit other immune cells.释放炎症因子，招募其他免疫细胞。

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In smokers, macrophages accumulate tar and ———, reducing lung function.

Pulmonary fibrosis – Macrophages contribute to tissue ——— in chronic inflammation.

肺纤维化 – 在慢性炎症中，巨噬细胞可能促进组织瘢痕形成。

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Apnea refers to the complete cessation of breathing. 呼吸暂停

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA): Caused by relaxation of the ——— in the throat, leading to airway blockage.

Often associated with obesity, enlarged ———, and nasal obstruction.

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Central Sleep Apnea (CSA):

    •    Caused by the brain’s failure to send proper signals to the ——— muscles

    •    Often associated with neurological diseases like ——- or ——- failure.

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呼吸困难 Dyspnea refers to the sensation of shortness of breath or difficulty breathing. It can result from both ———— and ——— conditions.

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1.    Acute Dyspnea: Onset over minutes to hours (e.g., pulmonary embolism).

    2.    ———— Dyspnea: Develops over weeks to months (e.g., COPD).

    3.    ———— Dyspnea: Triggered by physical activity.

1.    急性呼吸困难： 在几分钟到几小时内发生（如肺栓塞）。

    2.    慢性呼吸困难： 在数周到数月内发展（如COPD）。

    3.    劳力性呼吸困难： 由体力活动引发。

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Normal expiration is a passive process driven by the natural ——— of the lungs and ———— of the respiratory muscles.

正常呼气是一个被动过程，由肺的自然回缩力和呼吸肌的——引发。

Process:

    1.    The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles ———.横膈膜和外肋间肌———。

    2.    The thoracic cavity ———— in volume.

    3.    Intrapulmonary pressure ————, forcing air out of the lungs.肺内压力———，空气被动排出。

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Diaphragm – ——— muscle of respiration.

Internal intercostal muscles – Contract during ——— expiration.

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主支气管 The primary bronchi are the first branches of the trachea, which ———- air to the lungs.

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Right primary bronchus:

    •    ——— and more ————.

    •    Divides into ——— secondary (lobar) bronchi.

 Left primary bronchus:

    •    ———— and more ————.

    •    Divides into 2 secondary bronchi.

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Foreign objects are more likely to lodge in the ——— bronchus due to its wider and more vertical structure.

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The —— (or hilum) is the site on the medial surface of each lung where structures enter and exit.

肺门是位于肺部内侧的一个区域，结构在此处出入。

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Structures Passing Through the Hilus:

    1.    Pulmonary arteries – Deliver deoxygenated blood from the right ———— to the lungs.

    2.    Pulmonary veins – Carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left ————.

    3.    Bronchi – Main airways leading to the lungs.

    4.    Lymphatic vessels – Drain excess fluid from lung tissue.

    5.    Nerves – Autonomic nerves controlling bronchial —————— and dilation.

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Pulmonary hypertension – ——— pressure in the pulmonary arteries may affect blood flow through the hilus.

肺动脉高压： 肺动脉压升高可能影响血流通过肺门。

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The alveolar epithelium is a thin layer of cells lining the ——— (air sacs) of the lungs.

肺泡上皮是覆盖肺泡（气囊）表面的薄层细胞。

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Types of Alveolar Epithelial Cells:

    1.    Type I Cells:

    •    Thin, squamous epithelial cells.

    •    Responsible for —— exchange (O₂ and CO₂).

1.    I型细胞：

    •    扁平的鳞状上皮细胞。

    •    负责气体交换（O₂和CO₂）。

    2.    Type II Cells:

    •    Cuboidal epithelial cells.

    •    Produce surfactant – a lipoprotein that reduces surface tension and prevents alveolar ————

立方形的上皮细胞。

    •    产生表面活性物质（一种脂蛋白），降低表面张力，防止肺泡塌陷。.

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Tachypnea refers to abnormally —— breathing (more than 20 breaths per minute in adults).

呼吸急促是指异常快速的呼吸（成人每分钟超过20次）。

Causes:

    •    Hypoxia (low oxygen levels)低氧（血氧水平低）

    •    Anxiety焦虑

    •    Lung disease (e.g., pneumonia, COPD)肺部疾病（如肺炎、COPD）

    •    Acidosis (increased blood acidity)酸中毒（血液酸度增加）

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Hyperventilation – Excessive breathing ———— CO₂ levels, leading to respiratory alkalosis.

换气过度： 过度呼吸会降低CO₂水平，导致呼吸性碱中毒。

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