Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy in 1451. While spending most of his early years at sea, Columbus began to believe that he could find a shortcut to the Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. Unfortunately, the King of Portugal refused to finance such a trip, and Columbus was forced to present his idea to the King and Queen of Spain. In 1492, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella agreed to pay for his trip. They gave him a crew and three ships; the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria. Columbus sailed aboard the Santa Maria.

The trip was long and hard. Many sailors grew restless and wanted to turn around. After two months at sea, land was finally sighted. The ships docked on the island of Hispaniola. Columbus named the native people he saw "Indians", because he believed he had found the shortcut he was looking for. In actuality, Columbus found North America, a brand new continent at that time. Columbus, however, couldn't be convinced. He died with the belief he had found the shortcut to the Indies. Soon, however, other explorers and nations understood the importance of his discoveries. Columbus' discoveries set the stage for the Age of Exploration, one of the most fascinating and exciting times in world history.

The United Kingdom is a large island located in Europe. It also includes part of the island of Ireland. It is made up of four nations: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Over 60 million people live in the United Kingdom. The vast majority of the population, however, lives in England. The government of the United Kingdom is considered a constitutional monarchy. A constitutional monarchy is a government in which the monarch (king or queen) is head of state. Queen Elizabeth II is the monarch of the United Kingdom. In reality, however, she exercises very little political power.

The history of the United Kingdom is full of wars, invasions, revolutions, and interesting rulers. Numerous castles, fortifications, old cathedrals, and ruins are evidence of the kingdom's past. The "UK," as it is often called, was once the world's most powerful nation. Canada, Australia, India, Pakistan, and even the United States are among nations that used to be controlled by the United Kingdom. It is also the birthplace of the English language.

There are many remarkable landmarks to see in the United Kingdom such as the Tower of London, Big Ben, Oxford University, and the mysterious Stonehenge. Oxford University, founded sometime in the 12th century, is the oldest university in the English speaking world. Many of the United Kingdom's former prime ministers attended Oxford. Stonehenge, located near Salisbury, England, is a group of giant standing stones arranged in a circular formation. Archaeologists believe the formations are over 4,500 years old. No one knows exactly what Stonehenge is meant to represent.

Raisins are dried grapes that have been eaten for thousands of years. Nearly 3,500 years ago, the first raisins were discovered as grapes that were drying in the sun on a vine. In medieval Europe, raisins were used as sweeteners, medicine, and even as a form of money!

In America, raisins were first grown after an 1873 heat wave in California destroyed its valuable grape crop, leaving only dried, wrinkly, but tasty grapes on the vines. Soon, farmers began developing seedless grapes in California that were thin-skinned and sweet. These grapes would be purposely dried in the sun and became the popular dark-skinned raisin we eat and enjoy today. Later, a golden variety of raisin was made by treating grapes with a chemical called sulfur dioxide and using special methods to dry them.

Today, central California remains the center of the world's raisin industry, producing nearly 95 percent of the world's raisins. Its green valleys, sunny climate, and hot temperatures provide the perfect conditions for grapes that are dried into raisins.

The Man Booker Prize

The Man Booker Prize for Fiction is awarded every year for a novel written by a writer from the Commonwealth or the Republic of Ireland and it aims to represent the very best in contemporary fiction. The prize was originally called the Booker-McConnell Prize, which was the name of the company that sponsored it, though it was better known as simply the ‘Booker Prize’. In 2002, the Man Group became the sponsor and they chose the new name, keeping ‘Booker’.

Publishers can submit books for consideration for the prize, but the judges can also ask for books to be submitted they think should be included. Firstly, the Advisory Committee give advice if there have been any changes to the rules for the prize and selects the people who will judge the books. The judging panel changes every year and usually a person is only a judge once.

Great efforts are made to ensure that the judging panel is balanced in terms of gender and professions within the industry, so that a writer, a critic, an editor and an academic are chosen along with a well-known person from wider society. However, when the panel of judges has been finalized, they are left to make their own decisions without any further involvement or interference from the prize sponsor.

The Man Booker judges include critics, writers and academics to maintain the consistent quality of the prize and its influence is such that the winner will almost certainly see the sales increase considerably, in addition to the £50,000 that comes with the prize.

Some people have complained about this year's collection, New Writing 3, although I cannot understand why. Surely 500 pages of original writing of this quality, for £6.99, is pretty amazing?

Fiction - both parts of novels and complete short stories - makes up most of the book. There are some enjoyable pieces by famous writers, such as Candia McWilliam and Rose Tremain. It's a strange fact that the less well-known people seem to have written mainly about food. Take my advice about Jane Harris's Those Nails - this piece should definitely not be read just after meals. It contains some very unpleasant scenes which could turn your stomach!

There is fine work from nineteen poets, including R. S. Thomas and John Burnside. There are pieces from novels-in-progress by Jim Crace and Jane Rogers. Finally, there is a little non-fiction, which includes a very funny article by Alan Rusbridger on certain newspapers, and an extraordinary piece about herself from Ursula Owen. This is an exceptional collection and I for one can't wait to see what next year's choice will include.

The village of Jukkasjarvi is in Swedish Lapland, and winter temperatures there can reach -40º C. But 6,000 holidaymakers (21) ________ go there annually, to visit what is probably Europe's most unusual accommodation. In this hotel you eat, drink, and sleep in rooms made (22) ________ ice. If you want, you can (23) ________ get married in one. The bar is ice too, and putting hot drinks on it is obviously not (24) ________! The bedrooms are around -4º C, but fortunately guests are (25) ________ with special sleeping bags that will keep (26) ________ warm in the coldest of temperatures. (27) ________ outdoor clothes can be supplied too, if needed. The hotel is never more than six months old (28) ________ it melts in summer, and (29) ________ winter it is rebuilt. Creating the hotel (30) ________ 10,000 tonnes of ice, plus 30,000 tonnes of snow.

Henry Ford was born on a farm in Michigan in 1863 but he did not like farming. When he was fifteen he began work as a mechanic and in 1893 he built his first car. After he (21) ______ driven it 1,500 kilometres, he sold it and built two bigger cars. Then, in 1903, he (22) ______ the Ford Motor Company. By (23) ______ strong but light steel, he built cheap cars for (24) ______ people to buy. In 1908, he built the first Ford Model T, (25) ______ sold for $825. He was soon selling 100 cars (26) ______ day. By 1927, the Ford Motor Company was (27) ______ $700 million. Early Ford cars were simple and cheap, but (28) ______ things simple sometimes (29) ______ less choice. 'You (30) ______ have any colour you like,' said Henry Ford of the Model T, 'as long as it's black.'

The food we eat seems to have profound ............... (21) on our health. Although science has made enormous ............... (22) in making food more fit to eat, it has, at the same time, made many food unfit to eat. Some research has shown that perhaps 80% of all human illnesses are related to diet and 40% of cancer is related to the diet as ............... (23), especially cancer of the colon. Different cultures are more prone to ............... (24) certain illnesses because of the food that is characteristic in these cultures. ............... (25) food related to illness is not a new discovery. In 1945, government researchers realized that nitrates and nitrites, commonly used to preserve color in meats, and other food additives, caused cancer. Yet, these carcinogenic additives remain in our food, and it becomes more difficult all the times to know which things on the packaging labels of processed food are helpful or harmful. The additives, which we eat, are not all so direct. Farmers often give penicillin to beef or poultry, and because of this, penicillin has been found in the milk of treated cows. Sometimes similar drugs are ............... (26) to animals not for medicinal ............... (27) but for financial ............... (28). The farmers are simply trying to fatten the animals in order to ............... (29) a higher price on the market. Although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has tried repeatedly to control these procedures, the ............... (30) continue.

Cartoon films have very few limits. If you can draw something, you can (21) ______ it move on the cinema screen. The use (22) ______ new ideas and advanced computer programs means that cartoons are becoming exciting again for people of (23) ______ ages.

By the (24) ______ of the 1970s, the cinema world had decided that cartoons were only for children. But soon (25) ______, one or two directors had some original new ideas. They proved that it was possible to make films in which both adults and children could (26) ______ the fun.

However, (27) ______ cartoon film was successful. The Black Cauldron, for example, failed, mainly because it was too (28) ______ for children and too childish for adults. Directors learnt from this (29) ______ and the film companies began to make large (30) ______ of money again.

Zoos

People began to keep animals in zoos (21) ______ 3,000 years ago, when the rulers of China opened an enormous zoo called the Gardens of Intelligence. In many of the early zoos, animals (22) ______ taught to perform for the visitors. This no longer (23) ______ and it is accepted that the purpose of zoos is for people to see animals behaving naturally.

Today, most cities have a zoo or wildlife park. However, not (24) ______ approves of zoos. People who think that zoos are a good idea say they (25) ______ us with the opportunity to (26) ______ about the natural world and be close to wild animals. Both of (27) ______ would not be possible (28) ______ zoos. On the other hand, some people disapprove of zoos because they (29) ______ it is wrong to put animals in cages, and argue that in zoos which are not (30) ______ properly, animals live in dirty conditions and eat unsuitable food.