Revision Class - Memory

Revision Class 4 - Memory

​Memory processes

• ​encoding - consolidation by hippocampus, amygdala and cerebellum , role of maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, reconstructive nature of memory.

• ​storage and retrieval - Atkinson and Shiffrin multi-store model of memory, serial position effect, parts of the brain involved, types of retrieval, Loftus - influence of leading questions and fallibility, state and context dependent cues

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• ​Plus - factors that can impact all of these processes: Brain trauma including brain surgery and anterograde amnesia, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease.

Multi-store model​

Wordwall - Label the multi-store model

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4 Fast Questions​

4 x multiple choice questions​

​Remember you need to select the correct answer or the one that best answers the question.

Multiple Choice

The following memory stores are described in the multi-store model

• short-term memory and

  long-term memory only

• sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory

• episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory

• implicit memory and explicit memory

Multiple Choice

The process by which information is held in STM by repeating it over and over again is called

• retrieval

• consolidation

• elaborative rehearsal

• maintenance rehearsal

Multiple Choice

The process of getting the information out of our long term memory storage is called

• encoding
• storage
• retrieval
• reconstruction

Multiple Choice

According to Atkinson -Shiffrin multi-store model of memory, which process determines whether information moves from STM to LTM.

• encoding

• rehearsal

• consolidation

• All of these processes can be involved.

Multi-store model​

Wordwall - Group sort

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6 Fast Questions​

3 x multiple choice questions​

1 x fill in the gap and

2 x short answer questions.

Multiple Choice

Encoding is acoustic, capacity is limited, and duration is between 18 and 30 seconds in our

• sensory memory

• long-term memory

• short-term memory

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements about memory is most correct?

• The duration of STM can be increased by chunking.

• The greatest number of items that can be held in STM is nine.

• The capacity of STM can be increased by using maintenance rehearsal.

• STM receives information from sensory memory and LTM.

Multiple Choice

Iconic memory has a duration of

• 18 to 30 secs

• 0.3 to 0.4 seconds

• 3 - 4 seconds

• unlimited (raw copy)

Open Ended

What is one difference between the duration of short-term memory and long-term memory?

Open Ended

In reference to Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model, define the term retrieval.

Match

Match the following

• 7 + 2 bits of information

• 0.3 - 0.4 seconds

• 3 - 4 seconds

• 18-30 seconds w/o rehearsal

• Unlimited and in raw form

Capacity of STM

Duration of iconic memory

Duration of echoic memory

Duration of STM

Capacity of sensory memory

• Capacity of STM

• Duration of iconic memory

• Duration of echoic memory

• Duration of STM

• Capacity of sensory memory

​Differences between duration of STM And LTM

1. STM has a duration on 18-30 secs without rehearsal whereas the duration of LTM is relatively permanent.​

2. ​STM duration can be increased by using maintenance rehearsal whereas the duration of LTM is enhanced by elaborative rehearsal.

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​Definition of retrieval

In reference to the Atikinson-Shiffrin model retrieval means ​ to access information that has been previously stored in the brain.

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We can retrieve information stored in LTM and transfer it to our STM or we can use information directly from our STM.

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​NOTE: Avoid circular definitions - e.g., retrieval means we retrieve

​Forms of long-term memory

​ED IN

​Explicit: Declarative

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​Implicit: Non-declarative

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Differences between implicit and explicit memories

• Implicit memories are memories which can be retrieved without conscious effort whereas explicit memories require conscious effort to retrieve them.

• Implicit memories are mainly stored in the cerebellum whereas explicit memories are mainly stored in the cerebrum.

• Implicit memories can be described as non-declarative whereas explicit memories can be described as declarative.

​Areas of the brain involved in memory

​CEREBRAL CORTEX: Storage of explicit memories

HIPPOCAMPUS: Encoding explicit memories

AMYGDALA: Encoding emotional (implicit) memories

CEREBELLUM: Encoding and storage of procedural and reflexive CC response (implicit) memories

Cerebrum or cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain.

Brain regions involved in memory

Wordwall - Label the brain areas and role

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Cerebrum

​Amygdala

​Hippocampus

​Cerebellum

7 Fast Questions​

5 x multiple choice questions​

1 x fill in the gap and

1 x short answer question

Multiple Choice

Kim had an accident that damaged his amygdala. After his accident, which one of the following would Kim have the most difficulty with?

• recall of long-term memories

• recall of existing explicit memories

• consolidation of new short-term memories

• consolidation of emotionally arousing memories

Multiple Choice

Implicit memory is to the ____as explicit memory is to the ____.

• hippocampus

  cerebellum

• cerebellum

  hippocampus

• corpus callosum

  hippocampus

• hippocampus

  corpus callosum 

Multiple Choice

Memories outside of conscious awareness are

called

• proactive memories.

• reactive

  memories.

• explicit

  memories.

• implicit

  memories.

Multiple Choice

________ determines what information moves from sensory

memory to short-term memory.

• consolidation

• attention

• repression

• rehearsal

Multiple Choice

The part of the brain which encodes memories which are retrieved without conscious awareness is the

• cerebral cortex

• hippocampus

• cerebellum

• hypothalamus

Open Ended

Outline a difference between implicit and explicit memory.

​Implicit vs explicit memory

​Difference 1 - Implicit memory is also known as non-declarative memory whereas explicit memory is also known as declarative memory.

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​Difference 2 - Implicit memory can not be consciously retrieved whereas explicit memory is consciously retrieved.

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Difference 3 - Implicit memory is consolidated by the amygdala and cerebellum whereas explicit memories are consolidated by the hippocampus.

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Difference 4 - Implicit memories can be stored in the cerebellum whereas explicit memories are mainly stored in the cerebrum.

Serial position effect

Wordwall - Label the graph

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Explaining the primacy effect with the MSM

According to the multi-­store model, the transfer of information from STM into LTM depends on the amount of attention and rehearsal that the information receives.

Words experienced earlier in the list will have more rehearsal, and therefore will have a greater chance of making it to LTM, therefore will be more likely to be recalled.

Explaining the recency effect with the MSM

During the presentation of the list of words, people are trying to keep these in their STM.

STM is limited in capacity to about 7 + 2 bits of information.

Therefore, as new words come into STM, older words must be displaced. At the end of the task, the only words that are left are the ones that have just been heard and therefore have not been displaced.

No recency effect if immediate recall is not used.

STM is limited in duration to 18-30 secs without rehearsal. If an interference task follows the list of words before the participants are asked to write the words down recency effect will not occur.

Context dependent cues

• are aspects of the physical environment where a memory was formed that act as a prompt to retrieve memories formed in that environment.

• are part of the reason why people are taken back to a scene of a crime during an investigation.

State dependent cues

• are aspects of the individual's psychological and/or physiological state when a memory was formed.

• returning to this same state acts as a prompt for accessing the available memory formed.

Maintenance rehearsal

• involves repeating the same information over and over again.

• increases the capacity of STM.

• may transfer the information to LTM especially if you are rote learning but may be harder to retrieve.

Elaborative rehearsal

• involves linking new information to previously stored information and/or giving it meaning.

• allows the new information to be transferred to LTM more easily.

• is very effective if the link made has personal salience or meaning.

3 Quick Questions​

2 x multiple choice

1 x open ended​

Multiple Choice

The serial position effect is the phenomenon where recall

• of items towards the beginning and middle of the list are highest.

• of items towards the beginning and end of the list are highest.

• of items in the middle of the list is highest.

• is dependent of using serial recall.

Multiple Choice

Enhancing memory by weaving otherwise unrelated information into a meaningful story is an example of

• context dependent memory.

• maintenance rehearsal.

• elaborative rehearsal.

• the primacy effect.

Open Ended

Explain how primacy effect provides evidence for the existence of a LTM store as proposed by Atkinson-Shiffrin. (3 marks)

Primacy effect- suggested answer

• supports the idea that there is a separate LTM store, as proposed by the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, as the items at the beginning of the list a repeated and linked to existing memory more than the remaining items. These items are more accessible because they have been transferred to LTM.

Brain trauma and neurodegenerative disease.

Brain trauma, anterograde amnesia and Alzheimer's disease.

Brain trauma

• refers to brain trauma that is caused by external sources like brain surgery.

• occurred to HM and is a good example of how memory can be affected.

Potential effect on brain trauma

CEREBRAL CORTEX: trouble with of explicit memories

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HIPPOCAMPUS: trouble with consolidation of explicit memories

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AMYGDALA: issues with encoding emotional aspect of memories; will not fear things.

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CEREBELLUM: issue with encoding some types if implicit memories and storage of implicit memories.

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Classical conditioning

An emotional conditioning experiment was set up in which patients who had either damage to their hippocampus or amygdala were shown a series of colored lights, and each time a blue light was presented a loud unpleasant boat horn was blown. The figure on the right illustrates this conditioning.

Results

• After several trials, the blue light was shown (CS) by itself in order to measure the conditioning (implicit memory), and only the patient with hippocampus damage showed a conditioned response.

• Conversely, when the subjects were asked what had happened (explicit memory), only the patient with amygdala damage reported that the horn went off every time the blue light came on.

• NB - Remember HM could still store new procedural memories.

Anterograde amnesia

• can result from brain trauma to the hippocampus.

• is when explicit memories cannot be consolidated.

• results in the individual being unablle to remember events that occur after the trauma is experienced.

• occured in HM - could remember his past but not doing the experiment relating to procedural memory.

Neurodegenerative disease

• involves the progressive loss of neurons in the brain.

• is exemplified by Alzheimer's disease.

• links to the process of memory and areas of the brain related to memory

Alzheimer's disease

• produces loss of neurons in the brain particularly in the hippocampus at the start. What aspect of memory will this effect.

• eventually leads to damage and loss of other areas of the cerebral cortex

• is characterised by amyloid plaques that form around neurons inhibiting communication and tangles that accumulated within the neurons inhibiting their function.

• associated with low level of the neurotransmitter called acetylcholine.

Symptoms of Alzheimer's disease include

• a decrease in cognitive functioning.

• changes in mood.

• becoming confused and disorientated

• difficulty with language

• NB - can only be diagnosed by an autopsy.

2 Quick Questions​

2 x multiple choice questions​

Multiple Choice

Damage to the amygdala impairs the

• recall of STM.

• recall of emotional memories.

• consolidation of STM.

• recall of procedural memories.

Multiple Choice

The most prominent feature of Alzheimer's disease is

• impairment in consolidation of new explicit memories.

• sensory memory impairment.

• impairment in emotional memory.

• impairment in implicit memory.

BUGS - short and extended answer tool

• Box command term,

• Underline key psychology concepts,

• Glance at marks

• Scenario - mention name or context or with reference to etc.

BUGS - Box command term, Underline key psychology concepts, Glance at marks, Scenario

Open Ended

Sam has recently had surgery on her cerebellum after a serious fall from her bike. State if it is likely that Sam can ride her bike after recovering from the surgery? Justify your response. (2 marks)

Sam will not be able to ride her bike as the cerebellum is a store of implicit memories including procedural memories required to ride a bike.

Memory retrieval

recall, recognition, relearning, recontruction

Measures of retention

​There are four way that you can retrieve information from LTM to STM.

RECALL - least sensitive measure of retention

Free

Serial

Cued

RECOGNITION

RECONSTRUCTION

​RELEARNING - most sensitive measure of retention

Reconstruction​

​Being presented with information in a particular manner and having to piece it/put it back together in the same manner.

 e.g., You are shown photos of the 7 dwarfs in a particular order and have to remember them in and arrange in the same order.

 

 Note: this is a form of retrieving information from memory. It is separate from Loftus’ research on leading questions and the fallibility of memory.

8 Quick Questions

1 x MC; 7 x ​

Open Ended

Give an example of cued recall. (2 marks)

Open Ended

What is the term for an individual's statement of the details of an event that they saw? (1 mark)

Open Ended

What is the name for questions that contain misleading information or a phrased in such a way that suggests the desired response? (1 mark)

Fallibility of memory

Loftus research, reconstructive nature of memory and leading questions

Research by Loftus emphasised

• the fallibility of eye-witness testimonies.

• the reconstructive nature of memory - every time we retrieve a memory we re-consolidate it

• that our memory is not an exact copy of what we witness and leading questions can influence its accuracy.

• the misinformation effect is very powerful.

Leading questions

are questions that imply a desired response or contain false information. The implication or false information is added to other information when the eye-witness is consolidating the memory of the event and when retrieved is likely to be an inaccurate reconstruction of this event.

Remember - you will

• be frequently asked to apply you knowledge to new situation - practice past questions.

• need to constantly link information to other areas of the course.

• need an understanding of broad and specific concepts.

• rarely have to give a generic answer.

• smash this exam!!!!!