Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language P2

​Divergent (or creative) thinking is an activity that leads to new information, or previously undiscovered solutions. Some problems demand flexibility, originality, fluency, and inventiveness, especially those for which the individual must supply a unique solution.

​Intelligence is the ability to understand the world, think rationally or logically, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges or problems.

​Spearman's theory of general intelligence is known as the two-factor theory and states that general intelligence or "g" is correlated with specific abilities or "s" to some degree. All tasks on intelligence tests, whether related to verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g factor.

​Howard Gardner's nine types of intelligence include:

• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence.

• Linguistic Intelligence.

• Interpersonal Intelligence.

• Intrapersonal Intelligence.

• Musical Intelligence.

• Visual-Spatial Intelligence.

• Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence.

• Naturalist Intelligence.

​Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life."

​Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence:

• analytical

• creative

• practical

​The Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities is a comprehensive taxonomy of abilities embedded in multiple overlapping theories of cognition. It provides a common framework and nomenclature for intelligence researchers to communicate their findings. The basic idea of CHC theory is that intelligence is both multidimensional and functionally integrated.

​Brain areas and Intelligence

​Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once determined by dividing the mental age of the person by the chronological age and multiplying that quotient by 100 but now involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm.

• ​​Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once determined by dividing the mental age of the person by the chronological age and multiplying that quotient by 100 but now involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm.

• The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield four index scores derived from both verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of intelligence.

​Evaluating the quality of a test

​Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve

​Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors in the construction of an intelligence test.

​Critics also maintain that the content and administration of IQ tests are shaped by the values of Western middle-class society and that, as a result, they may discriminate against minorities. IQ tests are also criticized because the results are often used to label some students as slow learners.

• ​Neuropsychologists play an important role in the care of individuals with traumatic brain injury and other conditions in which brain functioning has been negatively impacted.

• Concussion, or mild traumatic brain injury, affects the lives of many athletes and military personnel.

​IQ test results fall along the normal (bell-shaped) curve, with an average IQ of 100, and individuals who are intellectually disabled are usually two standard deviations below the average (IQ below 70).

​Intellectual disability (ID), once called mental retardation, is characterized by below-average intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living. People with intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them more slowly. There are varying degrees of intellectual disability, from mild to profound.

Four levels of intellectual disability are mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These are determined by the level of adaptive functioning and level of supports the individual needs in their daily life.

​Causes of intellectual disability

​Emotional intelligence involves being able to reach goals and engage in productive thinking through accurate awareness and effective management of our own emotions. It also involves our ability to understand what others feel.

​• Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults for the most part.

• Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because Terman became too involved in the lives of several of his participants, even to the point of intervening on their behalf.

​Researchers generally agree that heredity and environment have an interactive influence on intelligence. Many researchers believe that there is a Reaction Range to IQ, which refers to the limits placed on IQ by heredity. Heredity places an upper and lower limit on the IQ that can be attained by a given person. The environment determines where within these limits the person’s IQ will lie.

​ Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases. Heritability of IQ is estimated at .50.

• In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published The Bell Curve, in which they made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence.

Multiple Choice

In Gardner’s view, effective counseling psychologists and managers would likely be high in __________ intelligence.

• verbal/linguistic

• interpersonal

• visual–spatial

• intrapersonal

Multiple Choice

According to Sternberg, which type of intelligence has a low relationship to academic success and would be the most difficult to measure in the classroom?

• practical

• analytical

• creative

• verbal

Multiple Choice

Professor Becker designed an IQ test. To validate this test, the professor should be careful to do which of the following?

• Give the test at least twice to the same group to ensure accuracy.

• Select the people in the sample from the population of people for whom the test is designed.

• Select only university professors to take the test so that they can critique the questions on the test.

• Strive to make sure that the test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Multiple Choice

In terms of differing cultures, what should be the goal of every test designer?

• to create a series of culture-varied tests

• to create a test with no questions involving culture

• to create a test that is culturally fair

• to create a test free of cultural bias

Multiple Choice

In recent studies, what do some researchers argue is a more accurate means of gauging success in relationships and careers?

• intellectual intelligence

• heredity studies

• emotional intelligence

• stress surveys

Multiple Choice

Which of the following would be an example of a stereotype threat?

• Joaquim, who believes IQ tests are unfair to Hispanics, something that his IQ score seems to reflect

• Jasmine, who feels she must excel on her IQ test

• Tiana, who believes that all testing, no matter the type, is stereotypical and biased

• Malik, who believes that tests are equal but must excel so as not to be stereotyped by his friends