Fagen et al

The mahouts were instructed not to signal to the elephants, increasing the validity of the study's findings.

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The behavioral checklist might not fully capture the elephants' true abilities, as it was overly specific in some tasks

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The study was conducted in a naturalistic setting with tourists and surrounding jungle sounds, enhancing ecological validity.

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Only five elephants were used in the study, which limits generalizability to other elephants and species

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The small sample size may be acceptable in animal studies, as it allows for detailed observation and control.

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The trainer’s subjective judgment in rating the elephants’ success may introduce bias into the findings.

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The training included behaviors not necessary for the trunk wash, which may have affected the accuracy of total training time reported.

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Fagen et al.’s study provides valuable insights for veterinary care practices in managing elephants’ health.

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The oldest elephant’s failure to learn the trunk wash might be due to individual health issues, not general learning ability.

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The detailed operational definitions for behaviors, like trunk-up, improved the consistency of observations.

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