•Our organs and organ systems are constantly interacting with our environment, changing in order to get back to baseline levels (_______)

•Our organs and organ systems are constantly interacting with our environment, changing in order to get back to baseline levels (set point)

•This is done through _________, in which a change in one direction away from the baseline is reversed back to the set point

•Blood glucose

•Body temperature

•Blood calcium level

•Hydration (water content)

•Many, many more

•If an animal remains away from the ______ for a significant amount of time, the results are generally unfavorable for the organism

•A change in the external or internal environment is called a ______

•Stimuli are detected by various _______, that activate feedback systems to bring the organism back to the set point

•If a body becomes too warm, a system is activated to cool the body

•If glucose levels in the blood are too high, a system is activated to lower the glucose level by storing the glucose in various tissues for later use

•The brain is often the mediator between the receptor and the feedback response

•(“cold-blooded”) animals do not have internal mechanisms to control their body temperature

•Their thermoregulation is controlled by their behavior

•Burrow underground on a hot day

•Resting under the sun on a cold day

•(“warm-blooded”) animals maintain a constant body temperature no matter the environmental temperature

•This allows them to continue to function optimally in all environments, unlike ectotherms

•Shivering is a means of generating heat through involuntary muscle contractions (friction)

•Goosebumps, caused by ___________, are thought to be a vestigial part of our evolutionary history, although it still serves an important purpose

•When the hairs stand up it traps the air that’s being warmed by our bodies in between the erect hairs better than when they’re flat

•The contractions of the arrector muscles help secrete insulating oil onto our skin (from sebaceous glands), and the straight hairs prevent those glands from being clogged

•There are blood vessels very close to the surface of our skin that either open up, becoming wider (________), or contract, becoming narrower (_______)

•causes more warm blood to flow to the body surface, facilitating heat loss from the body, therefore cooling the animal

reduces blood flow to the body surface so that the heat is retained and not lost to the environment

•Many organisms have a mechanism in which they transfer heat from arteries to neighboring veins instead of to the environment called ______________

•Dolphins, sharks, bony fish, bees, and hummingbirds have this ingenious mechanism

•The body is able to regulate temperature in response to signals from the _____ system.

•Temperature control is found in the hypothalamus of animal brains

•When a stimulus is encountered (cold or hot environment), the hypothalamus activates the ______________ to return the temperature to the set point

•Fevers – purposefully cranking up the set point

•During an infection, compounds called ______ travel to the hypothalamus and turn up the thermostat to a higher temperature

•This raises the temperature of our bodies giving us a fever

•This higher temperature is bad for the bacteria and activates cells involved in our immune response to be able to eliminate the infectious agent

•___________ is the process of maintaining a proper salt and water balance across cell membranes in the body

•The concentration of solutes in our body fluids is heavily regulated

•Body fluids include:

•Blood plasma

•Fluid within cells (cytoplasm)

•Interstitial fluid – found in spaces between cells and tissues

•These fluids contain water, nonelectrolytes (not ionic or charged), and electrolytes (charged molecules)

•The kidneys, especially, are involved in making sure our __________ is in tact, and that a proper amount of water and salts are present in our body

•Enough water is needed to excrete waste products

is the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

Solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane

Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water

Solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water

•The excretory system is involved in removing toxic waste from our body through:

•The urinary system is comprised of:

•Filtering of body fluids

•Water, sodium, calcium, magnesium, amino acids, glucose, vitamins, and wastes

•Reclaiming valuable solutes

•Glucose, vitamins, minerals

•Adding nonessential solutes and wastes to the filtrate

•Ions, drugs

•Processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released from the body

•Urine

•The urine collected in the renal pelvis flows down the ureter into the urinary bladder for storage until it can be excreted

•_______ in the bladder signal when it needs to be emptied

•The conscious decision to urinate relaxes various sphincters and allows the urine to drain the bladder

•_____ (chewing) breaks down large food particles into smaller particles

•Increases available surface area for digestive enzymes found in saliva to work

•Food is then swallowed, entering the esophagus, where it is pushed down to the stomach through _______, wave-like smooth muscle contractions

•The stomach, with a very acidic pH of 1.5-2.5, kills microorganisms and activates enzymes that further break down the food, resulting in a pureed-like substance called ______

•The chyme enters the small intestine, where it is met by _____ and many other enzymes to fully break down food into the simplest molecules that can be absorbed

•Waste products are pushed through the large intestines, where H2O is reabsorbed, and the waste is excreted through the anus

•Saliva both moistens the food and begins enzymatic digestion

•Food is masticated by teeth into smaller particles. Saliva is secreted from the salivary glands. Enzymes such as ________ in the saliva begin to digest starches into ______ and others begin to digest fats.

•With the help of the tongue, a spherical-shaped bolus is formed and is moved into the esophagus by swallowing.

•This tubular organ (esophagus) is responsible for transporting the bolus from the oral cavity to the stomach

•______ waves are uni-directional and involuntary, and are initiated by the act of swallowing

•A ring-shaped muscular sphincter is found between the esophagus and the stomach called the __________

•When there is no swallowing, it is closed, preventing stomach acids from entering the esophagus

•When swallowing does occur, the pressure from the bolus opens up the sphincter, allowing the bolus to be deposited into the stomach

•”Heartburn” or acid reflux is a result of a faulty sphincter that allows some of the stomach acid from entering the esophagus

•A large part of protein digestion occurs in the stomach

•The stomach secretes _______ acid to create a very acidic environment

•The inner lining of the stomach is coated with a thick layer of mucus, preventing it from being destroyed by these harsh conditions

•The acidic environment (of the stomach) does three things:

•_____

•_______

•______

•The resulting chyme enters the small intestine in small amounts through the pyloric sphincter, which opens up in response to hormones, stomach distension (stretching) and muscular reflexes

•The small intestine is where the completion of digestion occurs for proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids

•The inner lining of the small intestine contains finger-like projections called ___. Each epithelial cell in the villi contains microscopic finger-like projections called microvilli

•These protrusions GREATLY increase the total surface area by 600-fold, so maximum absorption of materials can occur

List the parts of the small intestine in order.

•The duodenum receives juices from three locations:

•secrete salivary amylase (starch) and lysozyme (breaks down bacterial cell wall)

•largest internal organ in the body

•Produces bile

•Processes vitamins and fatty acids

•Produces blood plasma proteins

•Detoxifies blood

stores bile produced by the liver

secretes bicarbonate (to neutralize pH) and a host of digestive enzymes

•The small intestine joins the large intestine via the __________.

•The _______, once thought to be a vestigial organ, plays an important role in our immune system and houses important gut bacteria for “re-seeding” after dehydration-inducing diarrhea

•The main function of the large intestine is to reabsorb H2O from undigestible waste, before excreting said waste

•It has three parts like the small intestine:

•_____ – connects to ileum

•_____ – houses gut microbiome and performs most of the water/mineral reabsorption

•_____ – stores feces until defecation

•The main function of the large intestine is to reabsorb H2O from undigestible waste, before excreting said waste

•It has three parts like the small intestine:

•Cecum – connects to ileum

•Colon – houses gut microbiome and performs most of the water/mineral reabsorption

•Rectum – stores feces until defecation

•The colon can be broken down into four separate parts:

•Ascending colon

•Transverse colon

•Descending colon

•Sigmoid colon

•Peristaltic movements eventually push waste into the rectum, where it is stored until it can be expelled through the ______

•Sugars are broken down into glucose to be used in our mitochondria for ATP production

•Cellulose (found in plant cell walls) cannot be broken down by us directly and is called __________

•Excess sugars are stored as long chains called ______ which are structured for easy retrieval when energy supplies get low

•Once enough glycogen is made, the remaining sugar is converted into long-term storage as fat

•The proteins we eat are broken down into individual amino acids

•These are then used to craft the proteins that we need

•No proteins are obtained directly from food – i.e. we don’t obtain the protein hemoglobin by eating it; we always produce the human version of hemoglobin by synthesizing it from amino acids

•Fats are often thought of as ”unhealthy,” but they are a very necessary component of our diet

•Fats add flavor to our food and give a sense of satiety

•More importantly, fats are needed for _______ synthesis needed for cell membranes

•Along with this, they are also required to help absorb important fat-soluble vitamins and produce fat-soluble hormones

Most organic molecules we need can be produced directly in our bodies, but some must be obtained from our diet

•small organic molecules required in small quantities

•Act as coenzymes by assisting protein enzymes in their function

•Low levels of vitamins prevent these enzymes from working correctly and can have a dramatic effect on health

•inorganic molecules that generally have a charge

•Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+/3+, etc.

•Can act as coenzymes like vitamins and are often important in metabolic signaling

•certain fatty acid chains are not produced in our bodies and must be obtained from diet – omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid; i.e. omega-3 fatty acids

can only produce 11 out of the 20 amino acids, the remaining 9 are essential amino acids.

•As multicellular organisms, we require the ability to transport nutrients to where they are needed and remove waste from where it is not needed

•Our _______ and ________ systems are designed to do this incredibly efficiently using a complex network of blood vessels that reach all parts of the body, a mechanical pump (heart) that keeps fluids in constant movement, and two lungs that facilitate gas exchange with our environment

•The various pressure/concentration differences help drive the movement of oxygen from the air to our blood to our organs AND the movement of carbon dioxide from our organs to our blood to the air

•During inhalation, the ________ descends, pulling air into the nasal and oral cavity by negative pressure

•Air is warmed and moistened in these cavities, which equilibrates the air to our body so it is better absorbed

•Any particulate matter is trapped in the nasal hairs, mucus, and cilia so that it can be removed later

The correct order of the respiratory system?

•The ______ contains cartilaginous rings to prevent collapse and secretes mucus to trap particles before cilia move the particles towards the pharynx

Bronchi from largest to smallest.

•At the end of the bronchioles are multiple ________ that each branch into alveolar sacs, each containing 20-30 tiny bubbles called alveoli

•The ___ are in direct contact with the capillaries of the circulatory system, ensuring oxygen will diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide will diffuse out of the blood

•The surface area on the inside of our lungs is estimated to be around 100 m2, or about the area of half a tennis court

•

•

•We see tremendous design ingenuity both in our digestive system (600-fold increase in surface area in our intestines) and our circulatory system

•Invertebrates typically have an ___________ where the circulatory fluid bathes the internal organs directly

What is the correct order?

•The ________ of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle before pumping it through the pulmonic valve to the pulmonary arteries and to the lungs.

•The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood into the _______ and pumps it through the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle before pumping it through the aortic valve and out the aorta to the rest of the body.

•Like diffusion we have talked about before, things move from areas of ____ concentration to areas of ___ concentration

•The same happens with regards to oxygen and carbon dioxide in our circulatory/respiratory systems, but since they are gases, concentrations are denoted by partial pressures

•The arteries of the body, indicated in red, start at the aortic arch and branch to supply the organs and muscles of the body with oxygenated blood

•Arteries have blood flow ____ of the heart

•The veins of the body, indicated in blue, return blood to the heart

•Veins have blood flow ____ the heart

•The pulmonary arteries are blue to reflect the fact that they are deoxygenated, and the pulmonary veins are red to reflect that they are oxygenated.

•The aorta is the thickest vessel in the body due to the tremendous pressure exerted on it from the left ventricle

•System responsible for coordinating the actions of many different body processes through the use of hormones

•This system coordinates with the nervous system to control the function of all the other organ systems (digestive, excretory, respiratory, etc.)

•Endocrine cells produce hormones that travel through the blood stream and interact with receptors on various tissues/cells to cause a physiological change, beginning at the cellular level

Hormones are the chemical signals that are released by endocrine cells typically found within _________

Cells release signals that affect itself

Cells release signals that affect neighboring cells

Cells release signals that travel in the bloodstream and affect cells throughout the body

found in the nervous system (discussed later); nerve cells secrete neurotransmitters across a synapse to a target cell

•_________ are similar to endocrine glands, but secrete chemicals to places outside the bloodstream

•Sweat glands

•Pancreas – secretes enzymes through pancreatic duct into the duodenum

•Each hormone binds to its particular ________

•These receptors can either be on the cell surface (stuck in the cell membrane) or floating in the cytoplasm

•Hormones will only activate cells that contain their particular receptor

•Hormones will only activate cells that contain their particular receptor

•This allows hormones to travel through the bloodstream and _____ activate those cells that contain a receptor specific to it

•The thyroid secretes hormones that activate many different tissues, controlling metabolism throughout the entire body

•The strength of the response is often controlled by the _______ of receptors found in a tissue, and this number can change

•Up-regulation involves an increase in the number of receptors, making the cell more sensitive to the hormone

•Down-regulation involves a decrease in the number of receptors, lowering the sensitivity to the hormone

•The strength of the response is often controlled by the number of receptors found in a tissue, and this number can change

•_________ involves an increase in the number of receptors, making the cell more sensitive to the hormone

•__________ involves a decrease in the number of receptors, lowering the sensitivity to the hormone

•The ________ is found at the base of the brain attached to the hypothalamus

•The _______ is an extension of the hypothalamus and contains mostly nerve fibers

•The ______ is distinct in its attachment to the brain

•The posterior lobe releases two hormones

•_____ – stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth

•__________ – stimulates water reabsorption by the kidneys

•The anterior pituitary responds to hormones released by the hypothalamus by producing 6 of its own hormones, most of which _________________

•stimulates protein production and cell division

stimulates production of milk in the mammary glands

stimulates thyroid hormone release

stimulates adrenal cortex hormone release

stimulates gamete production

•Luteinizing hormone

•In _____, stimulates androgen production

•In _____, stimulates ovulation and estrogen & progesterone

•The ______________ stimulates the thyroid gland (with thyroid stimulating hormone) to release thyroid hormones T3 and T4

•T3 – triiodothyronine contains 3 iodine atoms

•T4 – thyroxine contains 4 iodine atoms

•____ and ____ stimulate metabolic activity in the body, increasing energy use

•Increasing levels of these hormones in the blood result in feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit further signaling to the thyroid gland

•_______ – released in response to rising Ca2+ concentrations to lower it

•Most people have four small glands on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland called _________

•This can vary from 2-6

•Blood calcium levels are controlled by the both the thyroid gland (calcitonin ) and the parathyroid gland

released when blood Ca2+ concetration gets too low and increases it

•Located on the top of each kidney

•Both the outer region (adrenal cortex) and inner region (adrenal medulla) secrete different hormones

Adrenal Cortex

•_______ – mineralocorticoid that regulates concentration of ions in urine, sweat, and saliva; activated in response to decrease in blood volume, Na+ levels, and blood pressure

•_______ – glucocorticoid that increase blood glucose levels when they fall too low

Adrenal medulla

•Produces small amounts of the sex hormones called _______, but usually just supplement those released by the gonads

•Produces small amounts of the sex hormones called androgens, but usually just supplement those released by the gonads

•Contains two types of cells that either produce epinephrine (adrenaline) or norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

•These two hormones are released for a short-term reaction by the “fight-or-flight” response of the sympathetic nervous system

•Contains both exocrine (enzyme-producing) and endocrine (hormone producing) cells

•Endocrine cells are arranged in clusters called islets of Langerhans

•⍺ cells – produce glucagon in response to low blood-glucose levels, causing the release of glucose from the liver into the blood

•β cells – produce insulin in response to high blood-glucose levels, causing the uptake of glucose into tissues

Pancreas

•Contains both ______ (enzyme-producing) and ______ (hormone producing) cells

•Endocrine cells are arranged in clusters called islets of Langerhans

•⍺ cells – produce glucagon in response to low blood-glucose levels, causing the release of glucose from the liver into the blood

•β cells – produce insulin in response to high blood-glucose levels, causing the uptake of glucose into tissues

Pancreas

•Contains both exocrine (enzyme-producing) and endocrine (hormone producing) cells

•Endocrine cells are arranged in clusters called _____________

•⍺ cells – produce glucagon in response to low blood-glucose levels, causing the release of glucose from the liver into the blood

•β cells – produce insulin in response to high blood-glucose levels, causing the uptake of glucose into tissues

•________ – produce glucagon in response to low blood-glucose levels, causing the release of glucose from the liver into the blood

•______ – produce insulin in response to high blood-glucose levels, causing the uptake of glucose into tissues

•The gonads (testes in males; ovaries in females) produce ___________

_____ – produce androgens like testosterone

•Controls the development of secondary sex characteristics (facial hair, Adam’s apple, etc.)

•Controls production of sperm

______ – produce estrogen and progesterone

•Controls the development of secondary sex characteristics (widening of hips, enlargement of breasts, etc.)

•Production of eggs

•Controls pregnancy

•Prepares the body for childbirth

•The adult human contains ____ bones in their endoskeleton

•The skeleton has give major functions:

•In vertebrates, the skeleton is divided into two groups

•The _______ consists of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.

•The __________ consists of the bones of the pectoral limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvic limb, and pelvic girdle.

•Supports facial structures and protects the brain

•Cranial bones form the cranial cavity and surround the brain while providing attachments of muscles to head and neck

_________- each ear consists of three bones that convert sound waves to mechanical vibrations sensed in our fluid-filled cochlea

•Malleus (hammer)

•Incus (anvil)

•Stapes (stirrup)

•Lies below the mandible (jawbone)

•Connected to muscles in the jaw, larynx, and tongue

_______ surrounds and protects the spinal cord, supports the head, and is an attachment point for the ribcage

•26 bones in order from anterior to posterior

•24 vertebrae

•_____ – shield-shaped bone in the pelvic region between vertebrae and coccyx

•______ – “tailbone” – important for muscle, tendon, and ligament attachments

•Each vertebral body has a large hole in the center where the spinal cord resides

•In between the vertebrae, spinal nerves exit and spread laterally to serve different regions of the body

•________ contains ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae, and costal cartilages

•________

•Protects thoracic organs like heart and lungs

•Supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs

•Attachment point of diaphragm, back muscles, chest, neck, and shoulders

•______ – “breastbone”

Long, flat bone on the ventral side of the thoracic cage

•_____

•12 pairs of long curved bones that attach to the thoracic vertebrae and curve towards the front of the body

•_____

•Connect the ventral portion of most ribs to the sternum

•Provides flexibility for expansion during breathing

•Upper and lower limbs along with pectoral and pelvic girdles

•Pectoral Girdle transfers force generated by arms to the thorax

•Clavicles

•Scapulae (shoulder blades)

•Upper Limbs

•Humerus (at shoulder)

•Forearms (radius and ulna)

•Wrist, palm, finger bones (carpals, metacarpals, phalanges)

•________ transfers force generated by arms to the thorax

•Attached to axial skeleton by strong ligaments to be able to bear the weight of the rest of the body (coccyx)

Two large hip bones join at the pubic symphysis and to the sacrum at the dorsal part of the body

•Lower Limbs

•Femur (at hip) – strongest/longest bone in the body

•Shin bones (tibia and fibula)

•Ankle, foot, toes (tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges)

•Notice that _______ cells are long and cylindrical, they have multiple nuclei, and the small, dark nuclei are pushed to the periphery of the cell.

•______ cells are short, tapered at each end, and have only one nucleus each. Smooth muscles line the walls of intestines, stomach, bladder, respiratory tract and blood vessels

•_____ cells are also cylindrical, but short. The cytoplasm may branch, and they have one or two nuclei in the center of the cell.

- They contain tight junctions called intercalated discs that hold cells tightly together

•A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the _______, with a cytoplasm called the sarcoplasm. A muscle fiber is composed of many fibrils packaged into orderly units called _____. The orderly arrangement of the proteins in each unit, shown as red and blue lines, gives the cell its striated appearance.

•Muscle contraction is controlled by nerve impulses that stimulate the release of Ca2+ from the _____________________

•Ca2+ binds to _____, which allows the fibrous tropomyosin to move out of the way and expose binding sites for the myosin motors on actin

•Myosin binds to actin and pulls the actin towards the _____ (center of the Myosin fibers)

•Like the endocrine system, the nervous system can control the function of other nervous systems, though it does it MUCH more quickly

•The mixture of both chemical and electrochemical signaling allows for information to travel over (relatively) long distances in a fraction of a second

•In general, the _______ detects environmental changes from sensory organs, processes the information, and responds either through motor function or a change in physiological state

•

•As seen before, some organisms lack any nervous system at all (sponges)

•Jellyfish have no true brain, but a ________ that functions to control their various appendages and simple digestive system

•Flatworms have a _________________ comprised of ganglia (nerve clusters) and two nerve cords, and a peripheral nervous system (PNS) that extends from the CNS throughout the body

•Insects have a complex nervous system with a brain, but otherwise are without much centralization

•They have multiple ganglia throughout the body that can control movements without the brain’s input

•Nerve cords are located ventrally

_____ contains a brain and spinal cord

•Nerve cord located on dorsal side

_____ contains peripheral sensory and motor nerves

•All systems are made up of neurons that send and receive signals, and glia (not to be confused with ganglia), which are cells that support and nourish neurons, which are among the most energy-requiring of all cell types

•Fruit fly – 100,000 neurons

•Mouse – 75 million neurons

•Octopus – 300 million neurons

•Human – 86 BILLION neurons

_____ contain organelles common to other cells, such as a nucleus and mitochondria. They also have more specialized structures, including dendrites and axons.

Every cell has a voltage (difference in electrical charge) across its plasma membrane called a ____________

The ____________ is the membrane potential of a neuron not sending signals

Changes in membrane potential act as signals, transmitting and processing information

In a mammalian neuron at resting potential, the concentration of K+ is highest inside the cell, while the concentration of Na+ is highest outside the cell

___________ use the energy of ATP to maintain these K+ and Na+ gradients across the plasma membrane

These concentration gradients represent chemical potential energy

The opening of __________ in the plasma membrane converts chemical potential to electrical potential

A neuron at resting potential contains many open K+ channels and fewer open Na+ channels; K+ diffuses out of the cell

The resulting buildup of negative charge within the neuron is the major source of membrane potential

•In a resting neuron, the currents of K+ and Na+ are equal and opposite, and the resting potential across the membrane remains steady

•Changes in membrane potential occur because neurons contain __________ that open or close in response to stimuli

•When gated K+ channels open, K+ diffuses out, making the inside of the cell more negative

•This is _________, an increase in magnitude of the membrane potential

•Opening other types of ion channels triggers a ________, a reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential

•For example, depolarization occurs if gated Na+ channels open and Na+ diffuses into the cell

______ are changes in polarization where the magnitude of the change varies with the strength of the stimulus

These are not the nerve signals that travel along axons, but they do have an effect on the generation of nerve signals

•If a depolarization shifts the membrane potential sufficiently, it results in a massive change in membrane voltage called an _______

•Action potentials have a constant magnitude, are all-or-none, and transmit signals over long distances

•They arise because some ion channels are ________, opening or closing when the membrane potential passes a certain level

•During the _________ after an action potential, a second action potential cannot be initiated

•The refractory period is a result of a temporary inactivation of the Na+ channels

•At the site where the action potential is generated (usually the axon hillock) an electrical current depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane

•Action potentials travel in only one direction: _______ the synaptic terminals

•Inactivated Na+ channels behind the zone of depolarization prevent the action potential from traveling backwards

__________ are depolarizations that bring the membrane potential toward threshold

__________ are hyperpolarizations that move the membrane potential farther from threshold

•The human _________ includes the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.

•The brain is divided into two hemispheres and is joined by a thick bundle called the _________.

•The _______ contains the olfactory bulb (smell) and the motor cortex responsible for planning and movement

•Controls cognitive functions like paying attention, speech, and decision-making

•The ________ is involved in speech and reading

•Involved in how the body is oriented in 3-D space

•The somatosensory cortex detects touch sensations like heat, cold, pressure, and pain

•The ________ primarily involved in seeing

•The _______ primarily involved with processing and interpreting sounds

•Also contains the hippocampus which is involved in memories

•The cortex is connected to the spinal cord through the ________

•It receives sensory and motor inputs and helps regulate attention, arousal, and sleep states

•Posterior to the thalamus is the hypothalamus which is responsible for endocrine system control, especially thermoregulation

•Also responsible for __________, i.e., the sleep cycles

•The __________ is connected to multiple parts of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and hippocampus and is responsible for emotion and behaviors related to fears

•The ________ is found in the temporal lobes in the right and left hemispheres and is important in recognizing fearful faces and the sensation of fear in general

•The ________ controls balance and aids in coordinating new motor tasks

•The _______ connects the rest of the brain with the spinal cord and controls the basic homeostatic functions like:

•Breathing

•Swallowing

•Digestion

•Sleeping

•Walking

•Connects the brain with the rest of the body through spinal nerves that extend out as part of the PNS

•Located inside the ______ of the vertebral column

•A cross-section of the spinal cord shows gray matter (containing cell bodies and interneurons) and white matter, consisting of ______ axons

•Located inside the meninges of the vertebral column

•Controls motor reflexes by quickly sensing a stimulus and using a single synapse, initiates a muscle response

•Our PNS can be divided up between two sub-systems

The ______________________

•Controls systems without conscious control

The _____________________

•Transmits sensory information from the skin, muscles, and sensory organs to the CNS à then CNS signals to the muscles to move

•In the autonomic nervous system, a preganglionic neuron (originating in the CNS) synapses to a neuron in a ganglion that, in turn, synapses on a target organ.

•Activation of the _____________ causes release of norepinephrine on the target organ.

•Activation of the ____________ causes release of acetylcholine on the target organ.