It is a measurement, expressed as a percentage, of how much blood the left ventricle pumps out with each contraction.

An ejection fraction measurement under 40 percent may be evidence of

The following are the causes of heart failure, except:

Digoxin

Dobutamine

Propranolol

Captopril

Unloader medications are first line agents for heart failure

Calcium channel blockers are contraindicated to patients with heart failure.

Increase contraction of cardiac sarcomere by increasing the free calcium concentration

Inamrinone and Milrinone

Digoxin, Digitoxin

Dobutamine, Dopamine

prolong actionn potential duration

Disopyramide, Quinidine, Procainamide

shorten the duration of action potential

Tocainide, Mexiletine, Lidocaine, Phenytoin

no effect on action potential

Moricizine, Flecainide, Propafenone, Encainide

Propranolol, Esmolol, Acebutolol

Amiodarone, Sotalol, Bretylium, Ibutilide, Dofetilide

Verapamil, Diltiazem

They are antiarrhythmic agents that act by reducing the rate of phase 0 depolarization, prolonging the effective refractory period, increasing the threshold of excitability, and reducing phase 4 depolarization. These drugs also have local anesthetic properties.

They are antiarrhythmic agents that act by reducing sympathetic stimulation. They inhibit phase 4 depolarization, depress automaticity, prolong AV conduction, and decrease heart rate (except for agents that have sympathomimetic activity) and contractility.

They are antiarrhythmic agents that act by prolonging the action potential duration and effective refractory period. These drugs act by interfering with outward K+ currents or slow inward Na+ currents.

They are antiarrhythmic agents that act by prolonging nodal conduction and effective refractory period and have predominate actions in nodal tissues.

It is used for treatment of refractory life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias in preference to lidocaine; additional uses include the treatment of atrial and/or ventricular arrhythmias including conversion of atrial fibrillation and the suppression of arrhythmias in patients with implanted defibrillators; it also possesses antianginal and vasodilatory effects.

It inhibits the neuronal release of catecholamines,a nd it also has some direct anti-arrhythmic action. It prolongs ventricular action potential but not atrial action potential. This drug is used intravenously for severe refractory ventricular tachyarrhythmias and also for prophylaxis and treatment of ventricular fibrillation.

It is approved for the conversion and maintenance of normal sinus rhythm in atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. It is a potent inhibitor of K -channels and has no effect on conduction velocity. Adverse effects include serious arrhythmias and conduction abnormalities.

It prolongs the cardiac action potential, increases the duration of the refractory period, and has nonselective beta-adrenoceptor antagonist activity. Uses include treatment of atrial arrhythmias or life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias and treatment of sustained ventricular tachycardia. Its adverse effects include significant proarrhythmic actions, dyspnea, and dizziness.

These drugs are used to treat tachyarrhythmias caused by increased sympathetic activity. They also are used for a variety of other arrhythmias, including atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation.

drug of choice for the treatment of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia, including those associated with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome

A dextrorotary isomer antiarrhythmic drug that also exhibits antimalarial, antipyretic, and oxytocic actions

An antiarrhythmic drug that produces pronounced anticholinergic effects, including dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, urine retention, and (rarely) acute angle-closure glaucoma