Examines the materials composing Earth and seeks to understand the many processes that operate beneath and upon its surface.

(a)  

Seeks an understanding of the origin of the earth and its development over time.

(a)  

Changes in the earth's crust have in the past been brought about suddenly by physical forces operating in ways that cannot be observed today.

(a)  

James Hutton’s principle stating that there are inviolable laws of nature that have not changed in the course of time.

(a)  

An accepted scientific explanation for an observation or body of data.

(a)  

Seeks to examine geologic processes through experiments and observation. Has become an analytic science.

(a)  

The planet is dynamic and contains many interacting parts. The Sun drives external processes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and on Earth’s surface. _______ _______ are also powered by the planet's interior.

(a)  

Earth’s Structure (Traditional)

(a)  

Earth's Structure. (Sub-classifications)

(a)  

The processes through which the three main rock types (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary) transform from one type into another.

(a)  

The ____ _______ shows the continuous movement of water within the Earth and atmosphere. It is a complex system that includes many different processes. Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form of rain and snow. Liquid water flows across land (runoff) and into the ground (infiltration and percolation).

(a)  

Application of modern processes to ancient systems.

(a)  

Rocks that were formed under conditions that no longer exist (Ex. banded iron formations), conditions that exist but can’t be observed (Ex. depth, metamorphism), and conditions that exist at present, but require long time periods to form.

(a)  

 Substantial interval of time when erosion occurred rather than deposition.

(a)  

The lithosphere overlies a weaker region in the mantle called the (a)  

There are _ major lithospheric plates.

(a)  

The (a)   plate is the largest.

Generated when rocks are suddenly broken/ruptured.

(a)  

The contrast of the density x velocity.

(a)  

Reflection of seismic waves is based on the principle that P-waves encounter internal boundaries in the earth and some of the energy is reflected back to the surface. The energy is usually man-made and is detected by geophones or hydrophones. The amount of energy returned is a function of the change in physical properties at that layer (_______ ________). 

(a)  

In general, where the wave velocity increases with depth, the waves are bent (a)   .

The “ (a)   ” is the boundary between the crust and upper mantle.

The ______ ______ is the ultimate source of the lavas that formed the oceanic crust.

(a)  

The _______ _______ (________) is the thickest crust (avg 35 km; 20-100 km), yet it floats due to isostasy (continents “float” higher on the denser mantle than the adjacent oceanic crustal segments). 

(a)  

Earth's mantle is predominantly made up of ______ and ______.

(a)  

Transition zone approximately 500 km thick surrounds the inner core with the same composition as the outer core (important for _____ ______ ___ ______).

(a)  

Earth's core is mostly made of ____ and _____.

(a)  

The 3 types of plate boundaries are: _____, ______, and _______. (Alphabetical order)

(a)  

At _________ plate boundaries, lithospheric crust is being created. In ocean basins, this process is referred to as ___-_____ ______ as magma wells up from the asthenosphere along mid-oceanic ridges, widening the ocean basin. In continents, along continental rift zones, huge land masses can be separated by new ocean basins. Both such regions are referred to as constructive plate margins because lithospheric formation is occurring. The ___-______ ______ is the best example of this. 


(a)  

One plate is driven down under its neighbor in a process called (a)   .

Convergent plate boundary including subduction. Ex. Western coast of South America West of the Andes.

(a)  

One plate slips laterally past its neighbor along a major (a)   .

The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of which kind of plate movement?

(a)  

If you traveled to Iceland, what kind of plate boundary would you find?

(a)  

_____ is a driver of plate tectonics. Sources of ____ within the Earth are considered to be: primordial ____ (left over from formation of planet), radioactive decay (significant), and crystallization of the inner core.

(a)  

The heat that is transferred through molecular collision. Molecules with higher vibrational energy collide with molecules with lower vibrational energy causing a transfer of energy. (Ex. spoon in boiling water)

(a)  

When heat is transferred by the motion of the material itself. Movement of material within the Earth occurs by density differences. As the lower mantle heats the upper by conduction heat transfer across the core-mantle boundary, increased temperature causes decreased density. (Ex. rising of air masses as the sun heats the surface of Earth).

(a)  

Occurs as the internal energy at one place is converted into electromagnetic radiation which radiates out and is absorbed by material at another location. The electromagnetic energy is converted into internal energy (heat). (Ex. Sun waves absorbed by skin turn into heat. Also, microwaves)

(a)  

Strong and deforms elastically, and composes the crust/upper mantle.

(a)  

Weaker and reacts to stress in a fluid manner. Reaches from the base of the other part to ~700 km (transition zone is not distinct). Formed by partial melting (2-3%). Location in the mantle close to the melting point. Rocks are not molten. S-waves penetrate but velocity drops considerably. 

(a)  

The response of Earth’s outer shell to the imposition and/or removal of large loads (i.e. continents). Principle of (a)   is that beneath a certain depth (Depth of Compensation) the pressures of overlying column material are equal.

The push from a divergent margin. A horizontal pressure gradient is created by the differential weights along the plate with a high weight near the ridges that pushes towards the ends. 

(a)  

The tendency of the colder, older crust to sink into the hotter, less dense mantle material beneath it. As the slab sinks, it tends to pull the plate behind it. 

(a)  

A naturally occurring inorganic solid with an ordered internal molecular structure and a definite chemical composition.

(a)  

A solid aggregate of minerals.

(a)  

The formation of a compound by combining two or more elements.

(a)  

Occurs when atoms gain or lose their outermost (valence) electrons to form ions. Ionic compounds consist of an orderly arrangement of oppositely charged ions.

(a)  

Occurs when atoms share electrons to achieve electrical neutrality. Generally stronger than other main bond.

(a)  

Occurs when valence electrons are free to migrate among atoms. Weaker and less common than other bonds.

(a)  

An atom that exhibits variation in its mass numbed. Unstable (a)   emit particles and energy in a process known as radioactive decay.

Instruments for _______ _______ include: hand lens, streak plate, hardness tester (nail, copper coin, glass plate), acid, a magnet, and taste. Other lab equipment may include: an optical microscope, an electron microprobe, or an x-ray diffractometer.

(a)  

A mineral’s _____ _____ is an external expression of its internal structure.

(a)  

The tendency of minerals to break along plates of weak bonding. It produces flat, shiny surfaces that can be described by resulting geometric shapes (# of planes or angles between adjacent planes).

(a)  

A mineral’s resistance to abrasion or scratching. All minerals are compared to a standard scale called the Mohs scale.

(a)  

The color of a mineral in its powdered form. Obtained on an unglazed porcelain plate. 

(a)  

The appearance of a mineral in reflected light. There are two basic categories, metallic and nonmetallic, though other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, and earthy.

(a)  

The appearance of a mineral in reflected light. There are two basic categories, metallic and nonmetallic, though other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, and earthy.

(a)  

The absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken.

(a)  

The weight of a mineral divided by the weight of an equal volume of water. The average value of a mineral is about 2.7.

(a)  

Other physical properties of minerals include: magnetism, reaction to hydrochloric acid, malleability, double refraction, taste, smell, and elasticity.

(ok)

(a)  

The most important mineral group, as they compose most rock-forming minerals, and are very abundant due to large concentrations of silicon and oxygen in Earth’s crust. Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is a fundamental building block consisting of four oxygen ions surrounding a much smaller silicon ion. 

(a)  

Important non-silicate minerals (carbonates (calcite), halides (fluorite/halite), oxides (magnetite), sulfides (pyrite), sulfates (gypsum), and single elements (precious metals/sulfur/diamonds)) are typically divided into classes based on (a)   , and comprise only eight percent of Earth’s crust. They often occur as constituents in sedimentary rocks. 

(a)    are used in construction, electronics, glass, and jewelry.

(a)   (formed by partial melting of rocks) is the parent material of igneous rock.

Magma at the surface is called (a)   .

Rocks formed from magma are _______/__________.

(a)  

Rocks formed from lava are _______/_________.

(a)  

  (a)   consists of three components: melt, solids (silicates), and volatiles (dissolved gasses in the melt including water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide). 

  (a)   (primarily water) cause rocks to melt at lower temperatures, which is an important factor where oceanic lithosphere descends into the mantle. 

Increases in confining ______ cause an increase in a rock’s melting temperature. When confining _______ drop, decompression melting occurs. 

(a)  

_________ increases in the upper crust (geothermal gradient) average between 20-30 celsius per kilometer. Rocks in the lower crust and upper mantle are near their melting points. Any additional ____ may induce melting.

(a)  

Bowen’s reaction series shows that minerals crystallize in a systematic fashion based on their ______ _______.

(a)  

Separation of a melt from earlier formed crystals.

(a)  

Changing a magma’s composition by the incorporation of surrounding rock bodies into a magma.

(a)  

Two chemically distinct magmas may produce a composition quite different from either original magma.

(a)  

Used to describe the overall appearance of a rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement of interlocking minerals.

(a)  

Factors affecting crystal size: Rate of cooling (slow=fewer but larger, fast=many small, very fast =glass), % of silica present, and dissolved gasses. 

(ok)

(a)  

Temperature, composition, and dissolved gasses control the (a)   of magma.

(a)    is a measure of a material’s resistance to flow.

Magma with high silica content and high viscosity is...

(a)  

Magma with a lower silica concentration and lower viscosity are...

(a)  

(a)   content affects magma mobilita.

Gasses _______ within a magma as it nears the Earth’s surface due to __________ pressure.

(a)  

The violence of an eruption is related to how easily (a)   escape from magma. 

(a)   lavas cause mild eruptions.

_______/_______ lavas cause explosive eruptions.

(a)  

The physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rock at Earth’s surface.

(a)  

The transfer of rock and soil downslope under the influence of gravity.

(a)  

The physical removal of materials by mobile agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity.

(a)  

Breaking of rocks into smaller pieces. Frost wedging, unloading, thermal expansion, and biological activity.

(a)  

Breaks down rock components and internal structures of minerals. Most important agent is water, which is responsible for transport of ions and molecules involved in chemical processes. 

(a)  

(a)   is the combination of mineral and organic matter, water, and air.

Decayed animal and plant remains.

(a)  

Rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering.

(a)  

Rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering (regolith) support the growth of plants. Humus (decayed animal and plant remains) is a small but essential component. Both of these make up (a)   .

____________ ______ are products of mechanical and chemical weathering. They account for about 5% (by volume) of Earth’s outer 10 miles.

(a)  

(a)   rock contains evidence of past environments. It can provide information about sediment transport, and often contains fossils.

(a)   rocks are important for economic considerations because they may contain coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron, aluminum, or manganese. 

(a)   sedimentary rocks consist of precipitated material that was once in a solution. Precipitation in materials occurs by inorganic and organic (biochemical origin) processes. 

Sedimentary (a)   provide information that is useful in the interpretation of Earth history. 

Types of sedimentary (a)   are strata, or beds (most characteristic of sedimentary rocks), bedding planes that separate strata, and cross-bedding.

The transition of one rock into another by temperatures and/or pressures unlike those in which it formed.

(a)  

(a)   rocks are produced from igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and other metamorphic rocks.

____ is the most important agent of metamorphism. Recrystallization results in new, stable minerals. Two sources of ____ are contact metamorphism (_____ from magma), and an increase in temperature with depth due to the geothermal gradient.

(a)  

Pressure and differential stress are also agents of (a)   . Pressure/DS increase with depth, and confining pressure applies forces equally in all directions. Rocks may also be subjected to differential stress which is unequal in different directions. 

Chemically active fluids are also agents of (a)   . Chemically active fluids are mainly water with other volatile components that enhance migration of ions and aid in recrystallization of existing minerals. Sources of fluids are pore spaces of sedimentary rocks, fractures in igneous rocks, and hydrated minerals such as clays and micas. 

Name a few sources of chemically active fluids (agents of metamorphism).

(a)   geologists study the architecture and processes responsible for deformation of Earth’s crust.

A general term that refers to all changes in the original form and/or size of a rock body.

(a)  

That which tends to put stationary objects in motion or changes the motions of moving objects.

(a)  

The type of stress that shortens a rock body.

(a)  

The type of stress that tends to elongate or pull apart a rock unit.

(a)  

The type of stress that produces a motion similar to slippage that occurs between individual playing cards when the top of the stack is moved relative to the bottom.

(a)  

The rock returns to nearly its original size and shape once the stress is removed. 

(a)  

Once the elastic limit (strength) of the rock is surpassed, it either flows (______ deformation) or fractures (______ deformation). 

(a)  

Used to describe and map the orientation or attitude of a rock layer/fault surface. Defined as the compass direction of the line produced by the intersection of an inclined rock layer/fault with a horizontal plane. Generally expressed as an angle relative to the North.

(a)  

Same purpose as the strike. The angle of inclination of the surface of a rock unit of fault measured from a horizontal plane. Includes both an inclination and a direction toward which the rock is inclined.

(a)  

(a)   often occur during crustal deformation and are shaped like waves.

Most (a)   result from compressional stresses which shorten/thicken the crust.

Two sides of a fold.

(a)  

A line drawn down the points of maximum curvature of each layer.

(a)  

An imaginary surface that divides a fold.

(a)  

Upfolded or arched rock layers.

(a)  

Downfolds or troughs of rock layers.

(a)  

Depending on their orientation, anticlines and synclines can be described as symmetrical, asymmetrical, recumbent (overturned fold), or plunging.

(ok)

(a)  

(a)   are fractures in rocks along which appreciable displacement has taken place.

Faults are classified by their relative (a)   which can be horizontal, vertical, or oblique.

A (a)   is a fracture with no movement.