what are the 3 stages of cellular respiration

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the initial stage in cellular respiration where a glucose molecule is broken down into 2 pyruvate molecules, located in the cell's cytosol

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a stage in cellular respiration where pyruvate enters the mitochondrial matrix and is converted to acetyl-CoA, which then undergoes a series of reactions

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stage in cellular respiration where NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

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what are the animals that use photosynthesis classified as

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What types of organisms use photosynthesis?

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the biological process where organisms convert light energy into chemical energy to produce food and release oxygen as a byproduct

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produce their own food from simple inorganic substances using energy from sunlight or chemicals

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consume other organisms to obtain energy and carbon

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The 2 stages of photosynthesis are the ___-___ ___ in the ____ ____, which use light energy and water to produce ATP, NADPH, and oxygen, and the ___ ___ (light-independent reactions) in the ___, which uses ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into sugar (carbohydrates)

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the process by which cells interact with each other to coordinate their activities and maintain homeostasis

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this type of communication involves cells that are close to one another

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this type of communication allows cells to send signals over great distances to reach target cells throughout the body

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a cell signals itself

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involves signaling to nearby cells through diffusion

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uses the bloodstream to transport signals over long distances

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requires direct cell-to-cell contact

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a specialized form of paracrine signaling between neurons

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What does a receptor need in order to send a signal?

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a molecule or ion that binds to a central atom or molecule, either to a metal atom in coordination chemistry or to a receptor in biochemistry

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3 stages of cell signaling

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a signaling molecule, or ligand, from outside the cell is detected when it binds to a specific receptor protein on the cell's surface or inside the cell

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this stage is a relay system where the binding of the ligand causes a change in the receptor protein, which then initiates a sequence of molecular events inside the cell. This process often amplifies the signal through a cascade of protein changes and second messengers

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the final step is the specific cellular action taken as a result of the signal. This could be a change in gene expression, the activation or deactivation of an enzyme, or a change in the cell's metabolism or structure

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which receptor bind to extracellular ligands, which then activates a protein inside the cell, initiating a signaling cascade

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which receptor open a channel through the membrane when a ligand binds, allowing specific ions to pass through and altering the cell's electrical charge

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which receptor has an intracellular domain that functions as an enzyme or is directly associated with an enzyme that it activates

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a single molecule of DNA wrapped tightly around proteins called histones

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The G1, S, and G2 phases are stages of (a)  

is the growth phase where the cell makes proteins and copies organelles

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is the synthesis phase, where DNA replication occurs

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is the second growth phase, where the cell grows more and synthesizes proteins and organelles needed for division

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the ordered series of events a cell goes through as it grows and divides into two new daughter cells

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a five-step process where a cell duplicates into two identical daughter cells

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chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, the nuclear envelope begins to break down, the mitotic spindle begins to form (mitosis phase)

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the nuclear envelope completely breaks down, spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes at the kinetochore (mitosis phase)

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chromosomes line up at the center of the cell, forming the "metaphase plate", the mitotic spindle is fully developed with fibers attached to opposite poles (mitosis phase)

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sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell, the cell elongates as the chromosomes move to the ends

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the chromosomes arrive at the poles and begin to decondense, new nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes, cytokinesis (the division of the cytoplasm) begins (mitosis phase)

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Mitotic spindle microtubules attach to ____, which are protein complexes that form at the ____ of each duplicated chromosomes

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a complex, temporary cellular structure made of mircrotubules and associated proteins that is responsible for separating chromosomes during cell division

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the final stage of cell division where the cell's cytoplasm physically divides to form two separate daughter cells

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surveillance mechanisms in cells and the immune system

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act as a brake to prevent immune responses from becoming overactive, protecting the body from attacking its own healthy cells

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a group of diseases where some of the body's cells grow uncontrollably and spread into surrounding tissues or other parts of the body

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Non-cancerous tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body

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Cancerous tumors that can spread to other parts of the body (metatasis)

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involves a single parent, creating genetically identical offspring through processes like budding or fission

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involves two parents who gametes (sperm and egg) fuse to form a genetically unique offspring with a mix of traits from both parents

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Humans have ? pairs of chromosomes, totaling ?: 22 pairs are ? (body chromosomes) that are the same for males and females, and one pair of ? chromosomes (allosomes) determines biological sex. Females have 2 ? chromosomes, and males have one ? and one ? chromosomes.

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? is a term describing the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, which can be either haploid (? set) or diploid (? sets).

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? are members of a pair of chromosomes in a diploid organism that carry the same genes in the same order with one chromosome inherited from each parent. The type of chromosomes that have the most (1st answer) are ?, which are the non-sex chromosomes that come in pairs in humans (22 pairs) and other organisms

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? separates homologous chromosomes and produces two haploid cells, while ? separates sister chromatids and created four genetically unique haploid cells

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a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes by half to create four games (egg or sperm cells) from a single parent cell

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the process of cell division where a single parent cell duplicates itself to form two genetically identical daughter cells

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A random change in the DNA sequence can create new versions of genes (alleles); is the movement of genes between populations, typically through the migration of individuals; shuffles existing alleles into new combinations through processes like crossing over (recombination of DNA strands during meiosis) and random fertilization: Origins of Genetic Variation

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? tested inheritance by ? pea plants and observing seven distinct traits including flower color, seed shape, and stem length.

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A ? cross (monohybrid cross) analyzes the inheritance of one trait, while a ? cross (dihybrid cross) analyzes two traits simultaneously

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A ? trait is expressed if at least one dominant allele is present, while a ? trait is only expressed when two copies of the allele are inherited

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A segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait or function, like eye color or hair color; A different version or variant of a gene, which can lead to variations in a trait

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The specific set of alleles an organism has for a particular gene or set of genes; The physical and observable characteristics of an organism, such as size, shape, or behavior

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In ? dominance, the dominant allele completely masks the recessive allele, as seen in Mendel's pea plant. In ? dominance, the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate blend, like a pink phenotype is an intermediate blend, like a pink snapdragon flower from a red and white cross. In ?, both alleles are fully and separately expresses, such as a roan cow with both red and white patches.

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? traits appear in every generation, while ? traits often skip generations. ? traits affect males and females equally, whereas ? traits (especially X-linked) disproportionately affect one sex.

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states that genes are located on chromosomes, and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis explains the patterns of inheritance described by Gregor Mendel

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a biological mechanism that determines the sexual characteristics of an organism, with the two main categories being genetic and environmental

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genes located on the same chromosomes that tend to be inherited together

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? is the normal state of having the correct number of chromosome sets for a species, while ? involves having more than two complete sets. ? is the condition of having an abnormal number of individual chromosomes, which is not a multiple of the haploid number, often caused by ?, the failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division

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A portion of a chromosome is lost or deleted; a segment of a chromosome is repeated, resulting in a extra copy of the genetic material; a segment of a chromosome breaks off, reverses its direction, and reattaches to the same chromosome; a segment of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to a different, non-homologous chromosome (the four type of chromosomal mutations)

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To be considered ?, a molecule must be stable, capable of accurate replication, able to be expressed to produce traits, and able to undergo mutations for evolution

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a British bacteriologist who discovered bacterial transformation in 1928

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? is a double-stranded with a deoxyribose sugar and uses the base thymine, while ? is typically single-stranded with a ribose sugar and uses the base uracil instead of thymine

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They are best known for discovering the double-helix structure of DNA in 1953, a breakthrough that revealed how genetic information is stored and passed from one generation to the next.

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a British chemist and X-ray crystallographer who made critical contributions to understanding the structures of DNA and viruses.

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discovered Chargaff's rules

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shows that in DNA, the amounts of Adenine always equaled thymine, and the amounts of guanine always equaled cytosine.

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Complementary DNA strands: ? (?) always pairs with T (thymine), and C (cytosine) always pairs with ? (?)

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? shows that each new DNA molecule consists of one original "parental" strand and one newly synthesized strand, a concept proved by ? and ? in their 1958 experiment

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An ? is a specific DNA sequence where DNA replication begins. At an origin, enzymes like ? unwind the DNA double helix creating a ?. Within this bubble, two ? form at opposite ends, where the new DNA strands are synthesized, moving bi-directionally away from the origin

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In DNA synthesis the ? strand is synthesized continuously in the direction toward the replication fork, while the ? strand is synthesized discontinuously in short fragments called Okazaki fragments in the direction away from the fork

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The main types of DNA repair are ? (this method directly "undoes" the chemical reaction that caused the damage, often using a specific enzyme), ? (includes base and nucleotide excision repair), and ? (includes homologous recombination and non-homologous end joining)

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thread-like structures found in the nucleus of cells that contain the genetic material (DNA) organized into genes

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The ? of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein, a process essential for creating functional proteins. This flow is achieved through two main steps: ?, where the DNA sequence is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, and ?, where the mRNA is read by ribosomes to build a protein

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? are found in both DNA and RNA, while ? are found in only RNA

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During ?, the ribosome binds to the mRNA and the first tRNA carrying the amino acid methionine. During ?, the ribosome moves along the mRNA, adding amino acids to the growing protein chain. Finally, during ?, the ribosome reaches a stop codon, and the protein is released.

(a)  

A ? is made out of RNA proteins, and each (?) consists of two separate RNA-protein complexes, known as the small and large subunits. (same answer)

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A ? is a change in the nucleotide sequence of a short region of a genome. These could lead to genetic condition like ?, or they could help humans better adapt to their environment over time.

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? mutation involve a single nucleotide change, while ? are caused by the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide

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a change in a single nucleotide that does not alter the amino acid sequence

a change in a single nucleotide that results in a different amino acid being coded for

a change in a single nucleotide that created a premature stop codon, leading to a shortened and often non-functional protein

(a)  

? mutations are inherited from parents and are present in every cell of an individual, including reproductive cells, while ? mutations are acquired after birth and are not heritable

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? mutations are natural, random changes in DNA from processes like a replication errors, while ? mutations are caused by external environmental agents called mutagens

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? radiation is radiation with enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and molecules

? radiation is radiation with lower energy that can cause atoms to vibrate but not remove electrons

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are two adjacent thymine bases in DNA that have abnormally stuck together, usually because UV radiation from the sun

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? gene regulation primarily happens at the transcriptional level, often using an operon model to control multiple genes in a pathway, and is characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of transcription and translation in the cytoplasm. ? gene regulation is much more complex, occurring at multiple stages, involving individual gene promoters, and separated transcription from translation

(a)  

refers to the use of a limited number of regulatory factors in various combinations to produce a vast array of outcomes

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One or more activator proteins bind to specific DNA sequences (enhancers or regulatory elements) upstream of a gene's promoter to increase the rate of transcription.

Conversely, repressor proteins can bind to regulatory regions (sometimes called negative regulatory elements) to decrease or block transcription, often by interfering with the activator proteins or the transcription machinery.

(a)  

The specific arrangement, number, and type of cis-regulatory elements (CREs) in a gene's regulatory region determine how a combination of transcription factors (TFs) interacts to modulate gene activity. This creates a "logic" for gene expression where the overall output is dependent on the specific combination of bound TFs.

(a)  

Transcription factors can influence gene expression by modifying chromatin structure, making the DNA more or less accessible to the transcriptional machinery. Mechanisms like DNA methylation usually inhibit transcription.

TFs often function as part of larger protein complexes, recruiting coactivators or corepressors that communicate through intricate sequences of modifications to regulate transcription. 

(a)  

? inhibit gene transcription, while ? promote it by binding to specific DNA sites to either block or help the transcriptional machinery

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? conformation is tightly packed chromatin, making DNA inaccessible and repressing gene expression, while ?conformation is less condensed, allowing transcription factors to bind and activate genes

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? (NFRs) are located primarily in ? just upstream of transcription start sites (TSS), but can also be found at the 3′ ends of genes, within open reading frames (ORFs), and in ?

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? prevents transcription by making DNA more tightly packed, which blocks the transcription machinery from accessing the gene

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? frequency increases with biological complexity, correlating strongly with the emergence of multicellularity and increased cell type diversity

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a substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue.

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? tumors are noncancerous and don't spread, while ? tumors are cancerous and can invade and spread to other parts of the body

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mutated versions of normal genes that promote cell growth and division

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? genes produce proteins that act as "brakes" on the cell cycle, ensuring a cell doesn't divide when it's damaged. ? are a type of tumor-suppressor protein that monitors the cell cycle and triggers an arrest to allow for DNA repair or apoptosis (programmed cell death) if damage is detected. 

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