WorksheetsProsocial Behavior and Helping: Worksheet Questions (Grade 12)
Total questions: 135
Worksheet time: 1hrs 8mins
Define prosocial behavior as used in this worksheet.
Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person
Any act performed to gain social approval regardless of its effect on others
Any act that reduces personal risk even if others are harmed
Any act that follows a social norm without considering others
Define altruism as used in this worksheet.
Any act that benefits another person, does not benefit the helper, and may pose some risk to the helper
Any act that benefits everyone including the helper equally
Any act motivated solely by expectations of reciprocity
Any act performed for personal gain under social exchange
According to evolutionary psychology, which statements explain why people help others, including non‑relatives? Select all that apply.
Social behavior has evolved through natural selection (survival) and sexual selection (reproduction)
Genes can produce instincts or tendencies to act in certain ways in response to situations
Genes that increase survival or successful reproduction are more likely to be passed on
Selfish behaviors are never selected for because they reduce group cohesion
Identify accurate statements about kin selection and the reciprocity norm in evolutionary psychology. Select all that apply.
Kin selection is a tendency to help those genetically similar to oneself
Helping people who share our genes increases the likelihood that those genes are passed to offspring
The reciprocity norm is the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood they help us in the future
Reciprocity cannot be genetically passed on and is unrelated to evolutionary processes
Why might learning norms and gratitude be associated with evolutionary psychology and prosocial behavior? Select all that apply.
Learning useful norms (like helping) may have genetic underpinnings and be adaptive in society
Individuals who were better learners were more likely to survive
Emotions such as gratitude can motivate behavior and may have evolved to facilitate reciprocity
Gratitude makes helping less likely because it discourages future aid
Which statements extend the evolutionary account linking gratitude and helping to group survival? Select all that apply.
Gratitude for helping followed by reciprocity helped groups survive
The drive to help continued after living only with family ceased being the norm
Reciprocity reduces group survival by encouraging selfishness
Gratitude evolved solely to increase embarrassment after helping
Distinguish direct and indirect fitness within evolutionary psychology: which statement is accurate?
Direct fitness focuses on an individual’s traits that facilitate their survival, while indirect fitness focuses on traits in group members that facilitate the group’s survival
Direct fitness focuses on group traits that aid collective survival, while indirect fitness focuses on personal reproductive success only
Direct fitness describes prosocial behavior only, while indirect fitness excludes prosocial behavior
Direct fitness excludes survival considerations, while indirect fitness is unrelated to evolution
According to social exchange theory, which statements describe why and when people help, including common rewards and costs? Select all that apply.
Helping occurs when perceived benefits outweigh the costs
People try to maximize the ratio of social rewards to social costs in relationships
Rewards can include increased positive emotions, reduced distress, social approval, and future reciprocity
Costs can include danger, difficulty, embarrassment, and large time requirements
Which statements accurately explain why people feel empathy? Select all that apply.
Empathy is the ability to recognize and feel what another person is feeling
Empathy is implicated in social behaviors such as helping, aggression, and prejudice
We often match others’ facial expressions and body language, which can induce us to feel what they feel
Mirror neurons can allow us to feel like we are doing what other people are doing even when we are just imagining them
According to the empathy‑altruism hypothesis, under what condition do people help altruistically?
When they feel empathy for a person in need
Only when the benefits exceed the costs
Only when a close relative is in danger
Only when social approval is guaranteed
In Toi and Batson (1982), participants listened to a campus radio story about a student with broken legs who requested lengthy tutoring to catch up. What was the dependent variable the researchers measured?
Whether participants would provide the requested time‑consuming assistance
Participants’ accuracy recalling details from the radio story
Participants’ preference for the class compared to other courses
Participants’ reaction time in choosing a tutoring schedule
Before hearing the stories in Toi and Batson (1982), participants received one of two instructions. Which instruction was intended to induce high empathy toward the person in the story?
Take the perspective of the person in the story and think about their feelings
Be as objective as possible and not think about the person in the stories
Focus on the professor’s letter describing the situation
Ignore personal reactions and concentrate on class requirements
According to the results reported by Toi and Batson (1982), when escape from helping was easy (participants were told they would never see the student), helping behavior depended primarily on what?
Empathy level induced by the perspective‑taking instruction
Fear of punishment from the professor in charge of the study
The severity of the student’s injuries
Whether participants had previously volunteered in class
According to the results reported by Toi and Batson (1982), under low‑empathy instructions and easy escape, why were participants unlikely to help?
The cost of helping was high and they would not be punished for not helping
They were confused about the tutoring request
They believed the student would recover without assistance
They had already committed to other studies
According to social exchange theory’s objection summarized on the worksheet, why is altruism said not to exist?
Helping lowers the other person’s pain and can also lower your own pain, so you benefit
Helping is always anonymous and cannot be rewarded
Empathy prevents people from evaluating costs and benefits
Punishments always follow helping behavior in social situations
According to the worksheet’s summary of Toi and Batson (1982) in relation to social exchange theory, what conclusion challenges the claim that benefits eliminate altruism?
Empathy appears to drive some helping behavior even when there is a high personal cost
Helping only occurs when people expect monetary rewards
Empathy prevents any helping behavior when costs are high
High costs always eliminate empathy
What limit of empathy is highlighted on the worksheet regarding who receives help?
People more often empathize with attractive, similar, and in‑group members, leading to selective helping
People always empathize equally with in‑group and out‑group members
Empathy increases uniformly with the number of people affected
Empathy is stronger for strangers than for close others
The worksheet notes a scale limitation of empathy. What is the implication for concern about large‑scale problems?
Empathy connects to a single person, so people may not care about problems facing thousands or millions
Empathy increases proportionally with the size of the affected population
Empathy only operates for statistical information about groups
Empathy prevents concern for any individual cases
Regarding personality and prosocial behavior, what surprising pattern does the worksheet report about scores on altruism personality tests?
People with high scores are not much more likely to help than those with lower scores
High scorers are dramatically more likely to help than low scorers
Low scorers are consistently the most helpful
Scores predict helping only in anonymous online settings
What gender difference in helping does the worksheet describe?
Men are more likely to help in dangerous situations, while women are more likely to help with nurturing others
Women are more likely to help in dangerous situations, while men help with nurturing others
Men and women show no differences in any helping contexts
Men help only when they receive direct rewards
In the cultural section, which term describes Spanish cultures being helpful to everyone?
Simpatia
Collectivism
Reciprocity
Machismo
According to the in‑group/out‑group notes on the worksheet, which statement best reflects the motivations for helping?
We help in‑group members when we feel empathy, and we help out‑group members when it furthers our self‑interest
We help out‑group members more than in‑group members because empathy is stronger for strangers
We help only when formal rewards are guaranteed
We avoid helping in‑group members due to social norms
According to the worksheet’s explanation of social learning theory and prosocial behavior, what mechanism most increases the likelihood that a new helping behavior will be performed?
Observing others perform the behavior followed by rewards for that behavior
Memorizing rules without observing any behavior
Punishing observers who attempt the behavior
Ignoring models and relying on personal intuition
Which example from the worksheet illustrates social learning effects on helping?
Children who observe their teacher give rewards to a needy child are more likely to donate their reward
Children who never see helping modeled donate more than those who do
Adults refuse to help when they observe others being punished for eating in class
Observers always help regardless of any rewards
In Isen and Levine (1972), people used a mall payphone and either found a dime in the coin return or not. A confederate then walked by and dropped papers. What main finding is reported on the worksheet?
People who found a dime were more likely to help pick up the papers
Finding a dime reduced helping because people became distracted
Whether a dime was found did not affect helping
People who did not use the payphone helped the most
In a coin-finding field study on helping, what percentage of people helped after finding a coin?
84%
50%
15%
4%
In the same coin-finding study, what percentage of people helped when no coin was found?
84%
50%
4%
15%
Good mood and prosocial behavior: Which motives are associated with helping when people are in a good mood?
Managing mood by prolonging a good mood
Increased self-attention that highlights personal values
Seeing other people more positively
Reciprocity motives (returning a favor)
Negative state relief motives aimed at reducing sadness
Bad mood and helping: Which statements reflect how negative emotions relate to prosocial behavior?
Negative emotions can decrease helping
Under certain conditions, negative emotions can increase helping
Negative emotions always increase helping
Negative emotions have no relation to helping
Guilt and helping: Which findings are supported by research on charitable giving after confession?
Feelings of guilt can increase giving
Catholics donate less to charities after confession
Guilt reliably reduces helping across situations
Confession typically increases charitable donations
Sadness and helping: Which explanation best captures the negative state relief hypothesis?
People help in order to alleviate their own sadness and distress
People help because sadness makes them more skilled at assisting
People help only when others instruct them to do so
People help because sadness eliminates personal cost concerns
Rural versus urban helping: Which statements from Amato (1983) are accurate about passerby helping rates in the street-injury scenario?
In small towns, about half of passersby stooped and offered help
In large cities, only about 15% of passersby stooped to help
Helping rates are identical in small towns and large cities
Large cities show higher helping rates than small towns
Urban overload hypothesis: What explanation does it give for lower helping in cities?
Urban environments keep people hurried, distracted, and overwhelmed, reducing helping
Urban residents receive more first-aid training, reducing the need to help
City dwellers have stronger reputations, increasing helping
City residents are more attached to their communities, increasing helping
Residential mobility and prosocial behavior: Which factors explain why people who have lived longer in one place engage more in community-helping behaviors?
Greater attachment to the community
More dependency with neighbors
Greater concern with one’s reputation in the community
Frequent moving increases social ties and helping
Stage model of helping: At Stage 1, what is the central issue?
Noticing the event
Assuming responsibility
Deciding to implement help
Knowing how to help
Stage model of helping: At Stage 2, what is the central issue?
Interpreting the situation as an emergency
Noticing the event
Assuming responsibility
Deciding to implement help
Stage model of helping: At Stage 3, what is the central issue?
Assuming responsibility
Knowing how to help
Deciding to implement help
Noticing the event
Stage model of helping: At Stage 4, what is the central issue?
Knowing how to help
Assuming responsibility
Deciding to implement help
Interpreting the situation as an emergency
Stage model of helping: At Stage 5, what is the central issue?
Deciding to implement help
Knowing how to help
Assuming responsibility
Noticing the event
Large groups and Stage 2 of the helping model: Which statement is accurate?
Larger groups make people less likely to judge a situation as an emergency due to social influence
Larger groups make emergencies easier to identify
Group size does not affect emergency interpretations
Larger groups guarantee that someone will define the situation as an emergency
Crowds and responsibility: Which statement reflects how crowds influence responsibility in helping contexts?
Crowds make people feel less responsible for helping
Crowds increase personal responsibility for helping
Crowds have no effect on felt responsibility
Crowds ensure that someone in the group will help
Which phenomenon describes looking to others, seeing calm reactions, and assuming there is no emergency even when people are concerned?
Pluralistic ignorance
Group polarization
Social loafing
Social facilitation
Bystander effect (diffusion of responsibility): Which statements best capture this concept?
As the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood that any one person will help decreases
More bystanders make noticing and interpreting an emergency easier for each person
Each bystander tends to think someone else will provide assistance
It is also known as diffusion of responsibility
During emergencies, which aspects of the helping process can the presence of bystanders influence?
Noticing
Interpreting
Taking responsibility
Providing professional medical treatment
Darley & Batson (1973): In an experiment with 40 theology students walking to give a speech, which factor had the strongest influence on whether they helped a man slumped in a doorway who looked sick and groaned?
Their thoughts about helping norms based on the speech topic
The situation of time pressure (hurry vs. having time)
Their prior commitment to prosocial volunteering
The perceived social status of the man in the doorway
Darley & Batson (1973): What effect did manipulating the speech topic (e.g., "Good Samaritan" versus "Seminary careers") have on helping the man slumped in the doorway?
It significantly increased helping when speaking on "Good Samaritan"
It significantly decreased helping when speaking on "Seminary careers"
It had no effect on whether participants helped
It only affected helping for participants who were early
Darley & Batson (1973): Which specific time-pressure instructions were used before participants encountered the man slumped in the doorway? Select all that apply.
Hurry: "You're late"
On time: "You have several minutes"
Early: "You have plenty of time"
Late afternoon: "Return after lunch"
Latane & Darley (1970): In the smoke-filled room study where participants completed surveys with a confederate, what typically happened when participants were in groups and saw smoke entering through a vent?
They immediately evacuated without checking others
They checked others’ faces for reactions and concluded it was not an emergency
They called the experimenter for assistance right away
They blocked the vent to stop the smoke
Latane & Darley (1970): In the smoke-filled room study, what were participants who were alone most likely to do when smoke poured in through a vent?
Wait for the confederate to respond
Continue the survey until instructed otherwise
Go with their gut and leave to seek help
Open windows to ventilate the room
Latane & Darley (1970): What was the confederate (when present) trained to do in the smoke-filled room study?
Signal the participant to evacuate
Not respond to the smoke
Call the experimenter after five minutes
Pretend to faint from the smoke
Darley & Latane (1968): In the intercom discussion study where participants were isolated and could not see other "participants," what happened to helping when participants believed more people were in the group (e.g., two, three, or six people)?
Helping increased as group size increased
Helping stayed the same regardless of group size
Helping dramatically decreased as the number of other people increased
Helping only decreased when participants were in pairs
Darley & Latane (1968): In the intercom study, participants heard someone having a seizure during the discussion while the experimenter would not listen in and other microphones were turned off. What best explains why many did not help?
They thought the seizure was staged
They did not care about the person
They experienced diffusion of responsibility and were unsure if they should be the one to help
They were instructed not to leave their room
Darley & Latane (1968): After the intercom study, what did interviews reveal about participants’ perceptions of the seizure and the person who needed help?
They believed it was not an emergency and felt indifferent
They cared about the person and knew it was an emergency
They thought the person was faking and felt angry
They felt responsible for causing the seizure
How Can We Increase Prosocial Behavior? What is positive psychology?
A focus on diagnosing mental disorders
An approach centered on bringing good into the world
A method for reducing all risk-taking behaviors
A system for ranking moral virtues
How Can We Increase Prosocial Behavior? What is a potential drawback of requiring people to engage in prosocial behavior?
It can undermine intrinsic motivation, leading to compliance without genuine concern
It always increases aggression
It eliminates the need for ethical education
It guarantees higher empathy levels in all participants
How Can We Increase Prosocial Behavior? What is prosocial behavior?
Any action intended to help or benefit another person
Any action intended to increase one’s own status
Any action intended to avoid punishment
Any action intended to entertain others
Prosocial behavior: Which statements reflect compassion as described? Select all that apply.
Recognizing that everyone is suffering in some way
Making a commitment to help others with their suffering
Becoming more mindful through meditation can help make people more compassionate
Avoiding empathy to stay objective
Material Covered in the Text: How is prosocial behavior related to religious beliefs, according to the notes?
Religion discourages helping and generosity
Religion inspires people to be more helpful, caring, and generous—especially toward others in their group
Religious belief has no relation to prosocial behavior
Religion only increases helping toward strangers
Material Covered in the Text: What has been found regarding diffusion of responsibility in cyberspace?
Online, people help more because responses are faster
Online, people help less because they think someone else will handle it
Online, help rates are identical to face-to-face situations
Online, people help only when they can remain anonymous
Material Covered in the Text: How can media like music or video games increase prosocial behavior?
By promoting competition and rivalry
By promoting helping, cooperation, or kindness so people behave more prosocially afterward
By emphasizing violent conflict to reduce stress
By discouraging emotional expression
Chapter 12 Aggression: What’s the difference between aggression and violence?
Aggression is any behavior intended to harm; violence is extreme physical aggression that causes severe injury
Aggression is physical harm only; violence is verbal harm
Aggression is accidental harm; violence is intentional harm
Aggression is group-based harm; violence is individual harm
Based on the worksheet excerpt on aggression, which statements correctly distinguish instrumental aggression from hostile aggression? Select all that apply.
Instrumental aggression is a means to achieve a goal, whereas hostile aggression is an end in itself.
Instrumental aggression primarily results from anger, whereas hostile aggression is driven by external incentives.
Hostile aggression typically results from anger, whereas instrumental aggression is goal-directed.
Both instrumental and hostile aggression always aim to cause severe injury or death as their primary goal.
According to the worksheet, what is important to remember about the causes of extreme aggression such as mass shootings? Select all that apply.
Extreme aggressive acts typically arise from a single, simple cause.
Anyone can display minor aggression when the situation is right.
Extreme aggressive behavior generally requires multiple causal factors.
Only people with a diagnosed mental illness are capable of extreme aggression.
What is Freud’s instinct explanation for aggression, and how is it related to catharsis? Select all statements that reflect the worksheet content.
People are innately aggressive; aggression is part of human nature.
Aggression builds up like steam and must be released to avoid negative outcomes.
Catharsis theory is strongly supported by research findings.
Many people continue to believe in catharsis despite a lack of research support.
How could aggression have been evolutionarily adaptive for men, according to the worksheet? Select all that apply.
Aggression helped establish dominance.
Dominant men were chosen by women for greater protection and resources for offspring.
Jealous aggression deterred rivals and helped ensure paternity.
Aggressive men had fewer children on average and thus the trait diminished over time.
How does culture influence aggressive behavior, according to the worksheet? Select all correct statements.
Everyone is capable of aggression, but social environment shapes its expression more than biology.
Cultural norms can change, making aggression more or less accepted over time.
Biology completely determines aggression regardless of social context.
Individuals have no choice in whether to act aggressively because culture dictates all behavior.
What characterizes the Southern Culture of Honor and helps explain why it exists, according to the worksheet? Select all that apply.
Heightened sensitivity to threats to prestige or honor, with acceptance of violence as a response.
Higher argument-related homicide rates in the South, especially in rural areas.
Historical roots in herding cultures that valued toughness to protect property.
A legacy of coastal fishing communities emphasizing cooperation over toughness.
In Cohen (1996), what were the key methodological features of the study? Select all that apply.
Male students from northern and southern U.S. regions were studied at a university.
Participants experienced an insult condition where a confederate bumped them and swore at them.
A non-insult condition involved calmly walking down a hallway to turn in a questionnaire.
Participants were recruited exclusively from rural high schools.
In Cohen (1996), what were the major findings about physiological and cultural responses to insult? Select all that apply.
Insulted southerners showed increased testosterone levels.
Northerners were unaffected by the insult manipulation.
Aggression is a more acceptable response to insults in southern culture.
Insulted northerners showed the largest physiological increases relative to southerners.
According to the worksheet, what differences in aggression are found between men and women? Select all correct statements.
Men are more likely to engage in violence and inflict more serious injury.
Women are more likely to engage in relationship aggression, such as manipulating social ties.
Men and women have different role models that encourage different kinds of aggression.
Women are more likely than men to commit severe physical assaults.
How do strong or unpleasant sensory experiences influence aggression, according to the worksheet? Select all that apply.
Psychological discomfort from bad odors, physical pain, heat, and humidity contributes to aggression.
Pitchers are more likely to hit batters as temperature increases.
Heat has no measurable effect on aggressive responses in controlled studies.
Participants in hot rooms were angrier and more aggressive compared to cool rooms.
What is another reason crime rates go up in the summer, as described in the worksheet?
Controlled experiments show that higher room temperatures increase anger and aggression.
Police presence decreases during summer months.
Economic hardship peaks exclusively in summer.
Longer daylight hours directly reduce self-control.
According to the worksheet, how and why does alcohol influence aggression? Select all correct statements.
Intoxication inhibits cognition, reduces self-awareness, and lowers inhibitions.
People expect to be more aggressive when drinking, which increases aggressive behavior.
Alcohol use accounts for about half of violent crimes in the U.S.
Alcohol primarily enhances careful planning and reduces impulsivity.
What is social learning theory, and how does it differ from the classic behavioral approach to learning?
People learn only through direct rewards and punishments they personally experience
People learn by observing a model’s behavior and the rewards or punishments the model receives
Learning requires innate aggressive drives rather than experience
Learning is random and unrelated to observed consequences
Bandura (1961): What were the methods and results of the study?
Children watched adults interact with an inflatable doll; exposure to an aggressive model led children to imitate aggressive acts, while exposure to a nonaggressive model led to little or no aggression
Adults were punished for aggression, leading children to stop playing with toys altogether
Children played video games and later reported feeling angry but showed no behavioral imitation
Children observed friendly animal interactions and became more prosocial toward the doll
Why is media violence considered a significant problem?
Violent media mainly reduces boredom without affecting behavior
Exposure to violence in TV, movies, and video games often increases the likelihood of aggressive or violent behavior, a pattern supported by extensive research
Most viewers can completely ignore violent content and thus show no changes in behavior
Only young children are affected; adolescents and adults show no relation
Johnson et al. (2002): What were the methods and main findings of the study?
Tracked 700 families over 17 years; time spent watching TV during adolescence and early adulthood predicted later violent acts, and parenting practices did not explain the results
Surveyed college students for one semester; TV viewing was unrelated to later aggression when parenting was controlled
Conducted a laboratory experiment with noise blasts; TV viewing directly decreased aggression
Followed professional gamers for five years; gaming predicted empathy growth
How does exposure to media violence increase aggression according to priming?
Priming makes aggressive thoughts more accessible, increasing the likelihood of choosing an aggressive response to confrontation or provocation
Priming only improves memory for nonviolent scenes
Priming reduces attention to confrontations, lowering aggression
Priming causes fatigue, which suppresses aggressive impulses
What are scripts, and why do aggressive scripts lead to more aggressive acts?
Scripts are learned expectations for how events typically occur, often developed through observation
Aggressive scripts increase the prediction that confrontation will lead to aggression or violence
Scripts are fixed biological reflexes unrelated to experience
Aggressive scripts primarily reduce hostile thoughts
What is desensitization, and why can desensitized people be more likely to aggress?
Desensitization means violence becomes less emotionally upsetting with frequent exposure, making aggression feel more comfortable as a behavioral choice
Desensitization is a training method for improving motor skills, unrelated to emotion
Desensitization causes immediate empathy for victims, reducing aggression
Desensitization only occurs with movies and never with video games
Anderson and Dill (2000): What was the methodology, how was aggressive behavior measured, and what were the key findings?
Participants played violent or nonviolent video games; in a competitive reaction time task, winners could blast opponents with noise. Playing violent games increased accessibility of hostile words and led to longer, more intense noise blasts
Participants watched nature documentaries and took a vocabulary test; violent content had no effect
Participants completed a cooperative puzzle; violent games reduced hostile thoughts and noise blast intensity
Participants played violent games but aggression was measured only with self-reports, showing no differences
What is unique about violent video games compared with violent movies or TV that can increase aggression?
They are passive and noninteractive
They are interactive forms of entertainment in which the player may choose to enact violence, posing unique risk factors for aggressive behavior
They never contain hostile content
They always require teamwork and prosocial choices
What do we know about the cause-and-effect relationship between violent media and violent people?
Violent media consistently causes empathy growth
Violence is more common in interactive media, where the player chooses to be violent toward others, and exposure is linked to increased aggressive outcomes
Violent media has no measurable effects on behavior
Only individuals already violent are unaffected by media content
In the notes on violent media, video game protagonists are described in a way that may influence player norms. According to the excerpt, how are protagonists typically presented?
As heroes with violence framed as an acceptable response
As neutral observers who discourage any form of conflict
As anti-heroes who always resolve disputes peacefully
As mentors who teach conflict-avoidance skills
According to the excerpt, what classroom note is made about aggression in video games and available conflict-resolution options?
Aggression is rewarded and peaceful options are rare
Aggression is punished while nonviolence is rewarded
Both aggression and peaceful options are equally available
Peaceful options are required before aggression is allowed
The excerpt asks whether a loud blast really matters. Based on the notes, which interpretation aligns with the material?
A loud blast is not the same as shooting someone
A loud blast is identical to shooting someone
A loud blast always causes physical harm
A loud blast necessarily indicates intent to kill
In the discussion of aggressive thoughts, which statement best reflects the notes?
Aggressive thoughts are not actions but may influence how a person reacts
Aggressive thoughts are equivalent to violent actions
Aggressive thoughts always lead to physical aggression
Aggressive thoughts have no impact on reactions
According to the excerpt’s caution about media effects, which claim best matches the notes?
Violent media is a risk factor, not a guarantee of violent behavior
Violent media guarantees violent behavior
Violent media has no relation to aggression
Violent media always reduces aggressive responses
According to Dollard’s (1939) frustration–aggression hypothesis in the notes, which statement best captures the core idea?
When goals are thwarted, negative emotions arise that can lead to aggression
Aggression occurs randomly without relation to goals or emotions
Aggression only occurs when rewards are offered
Frustration never influences aggressive behavior
In the notes, what is displacement in the context of aggression?
Aggressing against a safer or easier target when the original thwarting agent is difficult to confront
Redirecting aggression into creative problem-solving
Eliminating aggression through relaxation techniques
Aggressing solely against the original source of frustration
Based on the notes, when are people more likely to aggress under frustration related to goal progress?
When they are closer to their goal
When the goal is far away
When goals are irrelevant
When goals are achieved
According to the notes, which type of frustration increases aggressive responses?
Unexpected frustration
Expected frustration
Minor inconvenience clearly scheduled
Frustration attributed to natural causes
Which condition in the notes increases the likelihood of retaliatory aggression under frustration?
It is safe to retaliate against the person causing frustration
The person causing frustration can retaliate
The person is physically distant
The frustration is clearly unintentional
According to the notes, which condition makes aggression less likely when frustrated?
The frustration is understandable and legitimate
Retaliation is safe and low risk
The provocateur cannot retaliate
The person is the immediate cause of harm
In the summary of Braker, Dembo, and Lewin (1941), what outcome did children show when made to wait a long time before playing with attractive toys?
They tended to run in and play very aggressively, destroying the toys
They waited patiently and played gently
They refused to play at all
They were indifferent to the toys
According to the notes comparing absolute and relative frustration, which form is most strongly related to aggression?
Relative frustration
Absolute frustration
Neither is related to aggression
Both are equally related to aggression
Which description matches absolute frustration in the notes?
Arises from objective hardship or a real obstacle preventing basic needs or goals
Arises from comparisons to others regardless of personal hardship
Occurs only when others receive unfair advantages
Is defined solely by social norms and expectations
Which description matches relative frustration in the notes?
Arises from comparison to others or to what you think you deserve
Arises only from power outages and emergencies
Never involves social comparison
Always indicates objective deprivation
According to the notes, which example illustrates relative frustration?
Receiving a raise but learning a coworker’s raise is much larger, leaving you feeling worse in comparison
Losing access to heating due to a power outage
Failing to meet basic needs due to lack of resources
Having clear information about why a delay occurred
In the notes on provocation, under what condition is provocation less likely to elicit aggression?
When the provocation appears unintentional
When provocation is explicit and deliberate
When the provocateur targets you personally on purpose
When the provocateur repeats the offense intentionally
What does the hostile attribution bias refer to in the notes?
Interpreting others’ behaviors as intentionally threatening, aggressive, or harmful, even when intent is unclear or innocent
Assuming all ambiguous acts are benign
Overlooking provocation in clear hostile acts
Attributing outcomes only to situational factors
According to the notes, how might aggressive schemas affect interpretations of ambiguous behavior?
They can lead people to initially interpret ambiguous behavior as aggressive
They ensure neutral interpretations of ambiguous behavior
They eliminate the influence of provocation
They always reduce aggressive reactions
In the Johnson and Rule (1986) study described in the notes, which group showed higher aggression toward the assistant when given the chance?
Participants who were told before the insult that the insulter had just received an unfair bad grade
Participants who were told after the insult about the unfair bad grade
Participants who received no information at all
Participants who were praised by the assistant
According to the notes, what is priming in the context of cognition?
A process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept
A method for eliminating cognitive biases
A technique for suppressing memory recall
A process that decreases the activation of related concepts
Which example in the notes illustrates spreading activation associated with priming?
Thinking of an apple activates related concepts such as the color red and fruits
Recalling a phone number suppresses color associations
Seeing a tree triggers memories of arithmetic formulas
Reading about music prevents activation of related ideas
According to the notes on aggressive cues, what effect can witnessing violence or seeing objects associated with violence have?
It may prime violent thoughts
It eliminates violent thoughts
It guarantees violent behavior
It has no relationship to cognition
Berkowitz and LePage (1967) placed angered participants in a room containing either badminton equipment or a gun; which outcome best summarizes the study’s major finding about aggressive cues?
Participants in the gun condition delivered more intense shocks, demonstrating that aggression can be primed by objects associated with aggression
Participants in the badminton condition delivered more intense shocks, showing that sports equipment reduces aggression
Both conditions produced equal shock intensity, indicating that object cues have no effect on aggression
Shock intensity decreased in both conditions, supporting the idea that exposure to objects relieves anger
Which features of narcissism explain why it is related to aggression? Select all that apply.
Exaggerated self-importance and a strong sense of entitlement
Deep need for attention and admiration
Low empathy and concern for others
Stable, secure self-esteem that resists provocation
Which characteristics describe antisocial personality disorder and help explain its relation to aggression? Select all that apply.
Low empathy for others and little remorse
No concern with whether behavior is right or wrong
Antagonistic or manipulative behavior toward other people
Strong internal moral and emotional inhibitions against aggression
Which traits comprise the dark triad associated with aggressiveness? Select all that apply.
Narcissism
Psychopathy (antisocial personality with low empathy and remorse)
Machiavellianism (manipulative, ends justify the means)
Agreeableness
What best defines Machiavellianism in the context of aggression?
A desire to manipulate others to achieve one’s goals, with the belief that the ends justify the means
A tendency to avoid confrontation and prioritize harmony
An emphasis on moral principles that limit aggressive behavior
High empathy and remorse toward others
According to the worksheet, how effective is catharsis for relieving aggression?
It does not reduce aggression and can lead to more aggression over time despite feeling temporarily better
It reliably reduces aggression when directed toward a safe target
It has no immediate effects but prevents future aggression
It is effective only when combined with exercise
In Geen et al. (1975), participants provoked by shocks were later allowed to shock someone else; what key result challenges the catharsis view?
Those who had already given shocks later delivered more intense shocks
Those who had already given shocks later delivered weaker shocks
Allowing participants to shock someone else eliminated anger entirely
Shock intensity did not differ between groups
Which approaches are presented as effective for reducing aggression, and why do they work? Select all that apply.
Training nonaggressive conflict strategies in schools to build skills
Modeling and reinforcing nonaggressive behavior through social learning
Responding calmly when provoked so others may imitate you
Encouraging students to vent anger aggressively to ‘get it out’
What methods are recommended for dealing with someone who makes you mad? Select all that apply.
Allow anger to dissipate rather than acting immediately
Use deep breaths or count to ten
Distract yourself with unrelated activity
Immediately confront the person aggressively to feel better
According to the worksheet, why do psychologists not encourage violent punishment for violent behavior, and what kind of punishment works best?
Violent punishment teaches fear and increases violent behavior; nonviolent, self-control–focused consequences work better
Violent punishment reduces aggression by modeling strength; harsher penalties are most effective
Violent punishment has no effect on future behavior; ignoring misconduct works best
Violent punishment eliminates fear responses; immediate physical consequences are most effective
What does the challenge hypothesis explain about testosterone in social contexts, and how does the dual-hormone hypothesis extend this idea?
Testosterone rises specifically in response to social challenges like competition and status; behavior depends on testosterone interacting with other hormones such as cortisol
Testosterone remains stable regardless of social context; the dual-hormone hypothesis claims hormones act independently
Testosterone rises only during physical exercise; the dual-hormone hypothesis links testosterone to melatonin
Testosterone decreases in competitive settings; the dual-hormone hypothesis states cortisol is irrelevant
What are sexual scripts, and how can they contribute to sexual assault according to the worksheet?
Culturally learned rules about sexual behavior that can normalize coercion, discourage clear consent, and promote misinterpretation of boundaries
Biological instincts that regulate mating and reduce coercion through clear consent norms
Legal statutes governing sexual conduct that prevent misinterpretation of boundaries
Individual preferences that have no cultural influence and do not affect consent dynamics
How can empathy help counter dehumanization, based on the worksheet’s description?
By taking others’ perspectives, reducing fear and stereotyping, activating moral concern, and making people less willing to harm out-groups
By focusing on group differences to highlight moral standards
By suppressing emotional responses so judgments remain purely rational
By increasing loyalty to one’s in-group through competitive framing
According to the worksheet, what is prejudice and why is it dangerous?
A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group based solely on membership; it harms targets through lost opportunities, stress, diminished self-esteem, and can escalate to violence
A neutral attitude that promotes group cohesion; it is only dangerous when combined with criminal behavior
A positive bias toward one’s own group; it is harmless unless laws are broken
A rational evaluation of individual traits; it is dangerous only when misapplied
How is prejudice related to affect, behavior, and cognition according to the worksheet?
It involves a negative emotional response (affect), unwarranted hostile behavior such as discrimination (behavior), and generalized beliefs or stereotypes (cognition)
It is purely cognitive with no emotional or behavioral components
It is an emotional response that never leads to behavior and is unrelated to beliefs
It is a behavior only, with emotions and beliefs playing no role
What are stereotypes, and how are they related to schemas as described in the worksheet?
Stereotypes are schema-based generalizations about groups that help organize information but risk misapplying object-like categories to people
Stereotypes are purely emotional reactions that are unrelated to schemas
Stereotypes are precise individual assessments that avoid generalization
Stereotypes are legal classifications that have no cognitive basis
Why is understanding a person different from understanding an object, according to the worksheet?
People have hidden, unobservable qualities and can change based on how they are treated
Objects have hidden moral qualities that change when judged
People are identical within a group and do not change with treatment
Understanding objects requires empathy, whereas understanding people does not
What is the relationship between stereotyping and prejudice as described in the worksheet?
Prejudice requires stereotyping, though knowing a stereotype does not equal endorsement; once formed, stereotypes are resistant to change
Stereotyping always leads to prejudice and is easily changed
Prejudice occurs without any stereotypes and stereotypes are quickly revised
Stereotyping prevents prejudice by encouraging individual evaluation
According to the worksheet, how do categorization and distinction relate to stereotyping, especially under stress?
Sorting people into groups promotes schema formation, emphasizes similarities over individual differences, and occurs automatically to provide quick information
Categorization focuses exclusively on individual differences and slows cognition
Distinction eliminates schemas by preventing group formation
Categorization is a deliberate, slow process that reduces reliance on similarities
Out-group homogeneity effect: Choose the statement that best describes this effect as presented in the worksheet.
Tendency to perceive more variability in in-groups than in out-groups
Tendency to perceive more variability in out-groups than in in-groups
We ignore individual differences within our own group
It is easier to recall specific individuals in out-groups than in our own group
How does stereotyping influence the interpretation of behavior when the behavior is ambiguous?
Ambiguous behaviors are interpreted in stereotype-consistent ways
Ambiguous behaviors are always attributed to situational causes
Ambiguous behaviors are interpreted as neutral until more data is available
Ambiguity prevents any interpretation
Sagar & Schofield (1980): Based on the worksheet description of methods and results, what was the key finding when sixth graders viewed ambiguously aggressive behaviors by black or white children?
Both black and white children rated the black kids’ behaviors as meaner than the white kids
Children showed no difference in ratings between black and white targets
Only black children rated white kids’ behaviors as meaner
Only white children rated black kids’ behaviors as meaner, while black children showed no bias
How do stereotypes affect memory? Select all statements that the worksheet lists as effects on encoding, attention, retrieval, and recall.
Encoding can be biased by stereotypes
Retrieval can be biased by stereotypes
People may recall stereotype-consistent information even if it isn’t true
Memory for people or events will likely be consistent with stereotypes
Stereotypes reliably increase the accuracy of memory for counter-stereotypic information
What is the illusory correlation and how does it maintain stereotypes? Choose the option that most closely matches the worksheet description.
Perceiving two events as related when they actually aren’t, especially noticing distinctive (minority) group members behaving in stereotype-consistent ways
Assuming all group members behave identically because of shared traits
Recognizing that minority status makes behaviors less noticeable
Attributing behaviors primarily to situational influences to reduce bias
What is the ultimate attribution error as described in the worksheet?
Generalizing the cause of one person’s negative behavior to an entire group
Attributing behavior primarily to situational influences rather than traits
Recognizing exceptions within a group to revise stereotypes
Assuming behaviors are random and unrelated to group membership
Bodenhausen & Wyer (1985): According to the worksheet, what happened to students’ parole recommendations when the crime matched common stereotypes of the offender?
Recommendations were harsher when crimes were consistent with stereotypes
Recommendations were more lenient when crimes matched stereotypes
Recommendations were unchanged regardless of stereotype consistency
Students prioritized evidence inconsistent with stereotypes (e.g., good behavior in prison)
What causes people to blame victims for their victimization, according to the worksheet?
A desire to see the world as a fair place, leading to dispositional attributions that blame victims
Strong attention to situational factors that reduce blame
Recognition of systemic causes that prevent blaming individuals
Random judgments that avoid attributions entirely
How can attributions and sub-typing be used to ignore information that disconfirms a stereotype, as described in the worksheet?
By labeling counter-stereotypic individuals as exceptions who don’t represent their group
By revising the stereotype whenever counter-evidence appears
By seeking additional relevant information that challenges expectations
By attributing behavior to broad societal causes to reduce bias
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy, and how can it maintain stereotypes according to the worksheet? Choose the best description.
A false belief about a target leads the perceiver to treat the target in a way that elicits behavior consistent with the belief, making the prediction seem true
Accurate beliefs about a target lead to neutral treatment and unbiased outcomes
Beliefs about a target are unaffected by how the perceiver behaves toward them
Stereotypes fade when predictions fail to materialize regardless of treatment
