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WorksheetsUnit 0: Biases and Research Methods
Total questions: 150
Worksheet time: 1hrs 15mins
Which scenario best illustrates hindsight bias?
Overestimating personal skill before performing
Claiming a result was obvious after seeing it
Predicting an outcome before any data exists
Ignoring contradictory evidence during research
Confirmation bias most likely leads a researcher to do which of the following?
Seek disconfirming evidence actively
Report only statistically significant null results
Surround themselves with belief-supporting sources
Randomly sample from opposing viewpoints
Overconfidence in judgment typically results in what risk for scientific decision-making?
Confusing correlation with causation more often
Overestimating one’s accuracy and precision
Underestimating one’s accuracy and precision
Avoiding clear operational definitions
A case study is best described as which type of approach?
Broad survey across populations
Focused, in-depth study of one entity
Controlled laboratory experiment
Randomized trial of multiple treatments
Naturalistic observation primarily involves which procedure?
Aggregating results across studies
Watching behavior in real settings
Interviewing participants about beliefs
Manipulating variables in a lab
Meta-analysis is used to accomplish which goal?
Collect qualitative narratives from interviews
Plot two variables to visualize their relation
Combine multiple studies to estimate an overall effect
Identify a single case with unusual characteristics
Positive correlation means what pattern between two variables?
Both increase or decrease together
One increases as the other decreases
They change independently of each other
Both remain constant across time
The directional problem in correlation refers to what uncertainty?
Which variable was randomly assigned
Which variable causes changes in the other
Which variable has a stronger mean
Which variable has measurement error
A third variable problem suggests what possibility in observed correlation?
Random assignment eliminated confounds
A hidden factor explains the association
Measurement scales were reversed accidentally
One variable perfectly predicts the other
Illusory correlation occurs when people believe what?
Causation is proven through randomization
No relation exists when one clearly does
A relation exists when it actually does not
Regression lines always pass through the origin
A scatterplot is primarily used to do what?
Summarize qualitative interview themes
Show the relationship between two variables
Display the distribution’s central tendency
Compare medians across multiple groups
Which data type is quantitative?
Open-ended responses about feelings
Numbers representing measured values
Transcripts from recorded conversations
Narrative descriptions of behavior
Which data type is qualitative?
Numerical scores on a test
Counts of observed events
Language-based descriptions or categories
Percentile ranks within a sample
Which set correctly pairs measures of central tendency with their meanings?
Mean: average value across scores
Median: middle number in ordered data
Mode: most frequently occurring value
Range: difference between highest and lowest
Standard deviation: typical distance from mean
Percentile rank conveys which information about a score?
Its distance from the mean in units
Its position relative to the sample
Its exact value without context
Its causal impact on other scores
Which scenario best illustrates regression toward the mean?
A moderate score diverges further from the average
A random trial yields identical results repeatedly
An extreme performance shifts closer to typical next time
A consistently high scorer keeps improving steadily
Which statement best defines effect size in research?
Probability that results occurred by chance alone
Difference between mean and median across groups
Magnitude of relationship between two variables
Number of participants included in a sample
Random assignment primarily ensures that:
Researchers avoid social desirability bias
Participants are evenly distributed by chance
Only the control group receives the placebo
The sample represents the wider population
Experimental bias occurs when:
Researchers’ expectations influence outcomes
Participants cannot identify the treatment
Data are analyzed with incorrect statistics
The placebo effect changes participant mood
Statistically significant results imply that:
Outcomes likely did not happen by chance
The study is fully generalizable to all
Participants reported their behaviors accurately
The effect size must be very large
Which scenario best describes a double‑blind design?
Everyone knows who received the variable
Only participants know their group membership
Only researchers know who received the placebo
Neither participants nor researchers know assignments
In a single‑blind setup, who is unaware of the condition?
Participants in the experimental group
Both participants and researchers
The statistician analyzing the data
The control group supervisor only
The control group is best characterized as the group that:
Contains the most reliable participants
Is selected by convenience sampling
Receives the independent variable
Serves as a baseline for comparison
Placebo refers to an intervention that is:
Inactive and used with the control group
A Likert scale anchor for responses
A strong variable applied to treatment
A blinding procedure for researchers
Reliability in testing means that the measure:
Produces consistent results over time
Avoids all forms of response bias
Accurately measures the intended construct
Is reviewed by peers before publication
Validity is demonstrated when a test:
Contains items with symmetrical wording
Is repeated with consistent outcomes
Measures what it is supposed to measure
Is approved by an ethics committee
Peer review is the process where:
Subjects discuss debriefing with researchers
Other scholars evaluate the study before publication
Participants review consent forms after finishing
Funding agencies audit project budgets
Which practice supports generalizability of findings?
Choosing volunteers by convenience
Keeping hypotheses unfalsifiable
Increasing the placebo dose for controls
Using a representative random sample
Ethical research requires adherence to principles such as:
Avoiding harm to participants
Ensuring confidentiality of data
Obtaining consent from participants
Maximizing placebo effectiveness
Self‑report bias most directly involves:
Inaccurate reporting of thoughts or behaviors
Researchers concealing assignment procedures
Sampling only the easiest volunteers
Using too few items on questionnaires
A Likert scale typically ranges from:
Values like 1 through 10 for agreement
Binary choices such as yes or no
Open‑ended narrative responses only
Nominal categories without order
Operational definition in a study serves to:
Ensure ethics like consent and debriefing
Increase the placebo strength for controls
Define IV and DV so experiments can be repeated
Determine if results are statistically significant
In experimental design, the experimental group is the group that:
Undergoes debriefing exclusively
Is held constant for comparison
Receives the variable being tested
Provides peer review feedback
Which statements about distribution shapes are accurate based on the diagram?
Negatively skewed: mean less than median
Symmetric: mean equals median and mode
Positively skewed: mean greater than median
Negatively skewed: median exceeds mode greatly
During debriefing in ethical research, researchers should:
Avoid discussing any potential risks
Explain study purpose and procedures
Reveal each participant’s private data
Ask subjects to change their answers
Which situation best indicates statistical significance?
Observed differences unlikely due to chance
Participants guess the expected answers
Large convenience sample with quick responses
Perfect reliability across all items
Which perspective explains behavior through rewards and punishments?
Behaviorist perspective
Cognitive perspective
Humanist perspective
Evolutionary perspective
Which perspective emphasizes free will and self-actualization?
Humanist perspective
Sociocultural perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Biological perspective
Which perspective focuses on memory, language, and mental processes?
Evolutionary perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Cognitive perspective
Biological perspective
Which perspective studies the brain, neurotransmitters, and nervous system?
Biological perspective
Sociocultural perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Humanist perspective
Which perspective examines how culture and environment shape behavior?
Humanist perspective
Sociocultural perspective
Cognitive perspective
Evolutionary perspective
Which perspective proposes that behaviors aiding survival are passed on?
Cognitive perspective
Evolutionary perspective
Humanist perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Nature vs. nurture refers to the influence of which factors on behavior?
Genes and environment
Rewards and punishments
Brain lesions and hormones
Language and memory
Genetic predispositions are best described as:
Inherited tendencies
Therapy outcomes
Cultural norms
Learned habits
A counselor urging a student to set personal growth goals illustrates which perspective?
Humanist perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Sociocultural perspective
Evolutionary perspective
A student making flashcards to actively recall information best fits which perspective?
Biological perspective
Evolutionary perspective
Cognitive perspective
Humanist perspective
Fear of heights potentially rooted in ancestral survival reflects which perspective?
Evolutionary perspective
Humanist perspective
Sociocultural perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Using multiple approaches together to explain behavior is called:
Reductionist approach
Eclectic approach
Monolithic approach
Operant approach
Lack of sleep affecting concentration aligns most directly with which perspective?
Biological perspective
Cognitive perspective
Humanist perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Which neuron type carries sensory information from the body toward the brain?
Motor neuron from cortex to muscles
Interneuron linking neural circuits
Sensory neuron from periphery to CNS
Mirror neuron firing during observation
Which neuron primarily processes information within the central nervous system to decide motor outputs?
Interneuron integrating CNS signals
Sensory neuron detecting heat
Motor neuron moving skeletal muscles
Glial cell repairing myelin
Which cells provide structural support and help form myelin around axons?
Axon terminals releasing chemicals
Dendrites receiving neurotransmitters
Interneurons directing motor plans
Glial cells supporting and myelinating
Which neuron part primarily receives chemical messages from other neurons?
Axon terminal storing vesicles
Myelin sheath insulating axon
Axon conducting action potential
Dendrites receiving synaptic input
Which structure sends the electrical impulse down the neuron?
Synapse bridging two cells
Dendrites collecting inputs
Myelin sheath protecting soma
Axon conducting the signal
What is the main function of the myelin sheath?
Speed signal by insulation
Digest synaptic leftovers
Generate resting potential
Store neurotransmitter vesicles
Which part releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap?
Cell body synthesizing proteins
Axon terminal releasing chemicals
Dendrites integrating inputs
Synapse forming the cleft
What term names the gap across which neurotransmitters cross to the next neuron?
Myelin node area
Synapse or cleft
Axon hillock region
Reuptake channel
During reuptake, what happens to leftover neurotransmitters?
They degrade in the cleft
They bind postsynaptic receptors
They trigger new action potentials
They return to the presynaptic neuron
At resting potential, how are charges arranged across the neuronal membrane?
Negative outside, positive inside
Positive outside, negative inside
Positive both inside and outside
Equal charges on both sides
What is the stimulus threshold?
Energy needed for reuptake
Average synaptic input level
Minimum energy to fire neuron
Maximum energy before block
Which phase describes the neuron firing as gates open and ions move?
Polarized resting phase
Depolarized firing phase
Refractory recovery phase
All-or-nothing block
What is the refractory period?
Time when vesicles fill
Time when synapse forms
Time when neuron fires
Time when neuron recharges
Which statement best describes all-or-nothing response in neurons?
Stronger stimulus makes bigger spike
Ions open gradually with force
Neuron either fires or does not
Firing strength scales with input
Which neurotransmitter is linked to memory and movement, with deficits in Alzheimer’s disease?
Acetylcholine affecting memory
GABA inhibitory calming
Glutamate excitatory speed
Serotonin regulating mood
Which neurotransmitter primarily inhibits neural activity and is associated with anxiety when low?
Glutamate excitatory transmitter
GABA inhibitory transmitter
Serotonin mood stabilizer
Acetylcholine motor control
Which neurotransmitter speeds transmission and is implicated in migraines and seizures when excessive?
Endorphins reducing pain
Norepinephrine stress arousal
Glutamate excitatory action
Serotonin regulating sleep
Which terms correctly match drug actions at receptors?
Agonists mimic neurotransmitters
Antagonists block receptor sites
Antagonists enhance reuptake
Agonists degrade synaptic enzymes
Which gland is considered the master endocrine gland and releases oxytocin for bonding?
Adrenal gland secreting adrenaline
Pancreas secreting insulin
Pituitary gland releasing oxytocin
Pineal gland producing melatonin
Which hormone is primarily produced by the pineal gland and regulates sleep?
Oxytocin promoting bonding
Adrenaline boosting energy
Melatonin regulating sleep
Insulin controlling glucose
Which hormone from the pancreas regulates blood sugar?
Adrenaline raising alertness
Oxytocin bonding hormone
Melatonin promoting sleep
Insulin lowering blood glucose
Which endocrine glands are responsible for reproductive functions?
Thyroid in the neck
Pineal in the brain
Testes and ovaries
Adrenal above kidneys
Which statement about norepinephrine is accurate?
Key for alertness and arousal
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter
Chief pain-relief endorphin
Memory via acetylcholine
Which pair correctly links a neurotransmitter to a clinical association in the notes?
Serotonin and depression
GABA and anxiety
Acetylcholine and epilepsy
Dopamine and schizophrenia
Which event most directly triggers neurotransmitter release from axon terminals?
Myelin sheath thickens
Reuptake transporter blocked
Action potential reaches terminal
Resting potential restored
In the provided neuron diagram, which labeled structure would most increase conduction speed if enhanced?
Synaptic gaps between cells
Dendrites receiving inputs
Myelin sheath around axon
Axon terminals with vesicles
Which class of psychoactive drugs slows down central nervous system activity?
Tolerance increases drug metabolism
Hallucinogens distort sensory input
Depressants reduce CNS activity
Stimulants speed up neural signaling
Which term describes the brain adapting so that more of a drug is needed to achieve the same effect?
Withdrawal causes strong cravings
Tolerance reduces drug responsiveness
Sympathetic activation prevents overdose
Addiction eliminates physical dependence
Which statement best characterizes stimulants?
They slow reflex arcs in the spinal cord
They trigger parasympathetic responses
They speed up CNS activity like caffeine
They alter perception using marijuana
What is a common effect of hallucinogens?
Suppress brain waves on EEG
Alter perception such as visuals
Increase heart rate via sympathetic
Restore peace via parasympathetic
Which structures compose the central nervous system?
Cranial and spinal nerves
Brain and spinal cord
Temporal and parietal lobes
Autonomic and somatic divisions
Which is part of the peripheral nervous system?
Brain and spinal cord
Reflex arcs within brain
Cranial and spinal nerves
EEG electrodes on scalp
Which division controls voluntary body movements like raising a hand?
Sympathetic branch
Parasympathetic branch
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Which branch restores peace by slowing the heart and releasing pupils?
Parasympathetic branch
Central nervous system
Somatic motor system
Sympathetic branch
Which statement best describes a reflex arc?
Automatic action using spinal cord
Voluntary motion needing cortex
Language pathway in temporal lobe
Imaging sequence on fMRI
What does an EEG primarily measure?
Glucose uptake with radioactive tracers
Amplified brain waves via scalp electrodes
Soft tissue structure using magnets
Combined activity and structure mapping
Which imaging method shows both brain activity and tissue structure together?
MRI examines soft tissues only
fMRI combines PET and MRI features
EEG records electrical rhythms
PET shows colorful glucose signals
Which technique uses radioactive glucose to light up active brain areas in bright colors?
Reflex arc spinal measurement
MRI soft tissue visualization
PET scan metabolic imaging
EEG electrical wave recording
Which modality is best for viewing soft tissue in the brain and body without radioactive tracers?
Sympathetic pupil dilation
EEG signal amplitudes
PET tracer metabolism
MRI magnetic imaging
Which hormone from fat deposits helps signal that you should stop eating?
Leptin promotes satiety signals
Dopamine enhances reward circuits
Insulin raises blood glucose levels
Ghrelin increases hunger sensation
Which lobe is most associated with Broca’s aphasia in this material?
Parietal lobe dominance
Temporal lobe involvement
Occipital lobe lesions
Cerebellar cortex damage
Aphasia broadly refers to which condition?
Inability to use or understand language
Loss of voluntary motor control
Chronic sympathetic activation
Reduced tolerance to psychoactives
Which set correctly pairs system with primary function?
Somatic—controls involuntary heartbeat
Sympathetic—arousal, pupils dilate
Parasympathetic—restores peace responses
Autonomic—regulates involuntary functions
Which outcomes are typical during sympathetic activation?
Heart racing and alertness
Reflex arcs cease entirely
Pupils dilate for arousal
Speech becomes fluent
Which hindbrain structure primarily controls heartbeat and breathing?
Medulla
Cerebellum
Reticular formation
Pons
What is the main role of the cerebellum?
Memory formation
Balance and coordination
Visual recognition
Language processing
Which brainstem component relays information to the lobes?
Hippocampus
Pons
Medulla
Thalamus
What function is associated with the reticular formation?
Speech production
Visual processing
Motor planning
Attention and arousal
Which hemisphere is most associated with language and logic?
Cerebellar hemisphere
Occipital hemisphere
Right hemisphere
Left hemisphere
Creative, analytic thinking with art and music is linked to which hemisphere?
Temporal hemisphere
Left hemisphere
Right hemisphere
Frontal hemisphere
Split-brain surgery most directly affects which structure?
Thalamus
Corpus callosum
Hippocampus
Reticular formation
Structural plasticity refers to:
Hormone release patterns
Nerve crossover at brainstem
Experience sculpting brain structure
Temporary attention changes
Functional plasticity allows:
Sensory inputs to stop crossing
Balance to replace breathing
Functions to move if areas are damaged
New lobes to grow
Which lobe supports high-order thinking and planning?
Temporal lobe
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Somatosensory cortex is found where?
Lower temporal lobe
Deep in occipital lobe
Front of parietal lobe
Back of frontal lobe
Which lobe primarily handles visual information?
Frontal lobe
Occipital lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Contralateral organization means:
Right body processed on right brain
Each eye to each hemisphere only
Right body processed on left brain
Left brain controls left body
Which limbic structure forms new episodic and semantic memories?
Hypothalamus
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Thalamus
Which case illustrated frontal lobe change in personality after injury?
Phineas Gage
Split-brain patient
Broca’s case
H.M. case
Which gland releases melatonin that aids sleep?
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Pineal gland
Adrenal gland
Jet lag most directly involves:
Blocked thalamic routing
Circadian rhythm mismatch
Cortical plasticity loss
Reduced amygdala activity
Damage causing wild but meaningless speech comprehension problems is called:
Conduction aphasia
Broca’s aphasia
Wernicke’s aphasia
Global aphasia
Place the typical sleep stage order starting from wakefulness: Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3, then which stage?
Immediate Stage 2 repeat
Direct return to Stage 1
REM sleep follows next
Another Stage 3 period
Which feature is characteristic of REM sleep?
Theta waves cause sleep spindles onset
Motor cortex remains highly active
Brain shows beta-like activity and vivid dreaming
Alpha waves dominate deep sleep
What is REM rebound most accurately described as?
Shorter REM due to sleep walking
Longer Stage 3 after daytime naps
Reduced REM after excessive dreaming
Extra REM after prior deprivation
Which dream theory states the brain makes sense of random activations during sleep?
Activation-synthesis theory
Restorative sleep theory
Information gating theory
Executive attention theory
Which sleep disorder best fits difficulty falling or staying asleep?
Narcolepsy description fits
Insomnia definition fits
Restless leg syndrome fits
REM behavior issues fit
Which condition involves uncomfortable limb sensations that disrupt sleep?
Restless leg syndrome symptoms
Sleep apnea airway collapse
Narcolepsy REM onset
Somnambulism in deep sleep
Which sleep disorder primarily features breathing interruptions during sleep?
Somnambulism condition
Narcolepsy syndrome
Sleep apnea disorder
REM behavior disorder
Acting out dreams due to lack of muscle atonia characterizes which disorder?
Narcolepsy sudden REM
Insomnia persistent wake
REM sleep behavior disorder
Somnambulism deep walk
Sudden transitions into REM sleep are typical of which condition?
Sleep apnea arousal gasps
Narcolepsy sleep attacks
Restless leg syndrome
Insomnia chronic wakefulness
Which statement correctly distinguishes sensation from perception?
Sensation produces motor output; perception controls breathing
Sensation stores memories; perception creates dreams
Sensation receives energy; perception organizes information
Sensation organizes signals; perception receives energy
What is transduction in sensory systems?
Filtering irrelevant stimuli first
Binding meaning to sensory data
Amplifying signals in the cortex
Converting energy into neural signals
Which set includes processes ordered from input to interpretation?
Sensation then perception then transduction
Sensation then transduction then perception
Perception then sensation then transduction
Transduction then sensation then perception
Which statement best defines bottom-up processing in sensation and perception?
Processing guided by prior knowledge and expectations
Processing driven by sensory input building toward integration
Processing that relies on language to decode visual scenes
Processing that ignores sensory receptors and uses heuristics
Top-down processing primarily relies on which source of information?
Learned memories, contexts, and expectations
Reflexes mediated by the spinal cord
Hormonal signals from the endocrine system
Incoming stimulus features from the retina
Transduction in sensory systems refers to which step?
Filtering irrelevant signals from awareness
Delivering neural information to the cortex
Transforming stimulation into neural impulses
Receiving external stimulation by receptors
Which sequence correctly lists the three basic steps common to all senses?
Receive, transform, deliver
Receive, deliver, transform
Deliver, transform, receive
Transform, deliver, receive
What is the absolute threshold?
Maximum stimulus level before pain responses occur
Average stimulus intensity perceived as neutral
Minimum stimulus energy detected fifty percent of trials
Minimum change needed to notice a difference once
Difference threshold (JND) is best described as the ability to
Detect a stimulus in complete darkness
Detect the fastest possible neural firing
Detect a stimulus during adaptation
Detect differences between two stimuli
According to Weber’s Law, perceiving a difference requires that two stimuli
Differ by a constant absolute amount
Differ by a constant minimum percentage
Differ by random fluctuation over time
Differ only when adaptation is complete
Which example correctly illustrates Weber’s Law using weight changes?
Noticing 5 lbs lost always, regardless of body size
Noticing a 10% body weight loss across different frames
Noticing any 1 lb change as equally detectable
Noticing only increases but never decreases
Sensory adaptation results in which outcome during constant stimulation?
Complete receptor fatigue and damage
Diminished sensitivity as receptors adjust
Enhanced sensitivity over prolonged exposure
Improved absolute thresholds permanently
Which everyday scenario best reflects sensory adaptation?
Restaurant smell becomes stronger with time
Fire alarm grows louder through exposure
Perfume stays equally intense all day
Watch on the wrist becomes less noticeable
Which structure is the eye’s transparent outer layer that helps bend light and aids focus?
Cornea
Iris
Pupil
Lens
What is the primary function of the iris?
Control the size of the pupil
Transmit signals to the optic nerve
Protect the eye’s surface
Focus light onto the retina
The pupil can be described as
A colored membrane filtering wavelengths
A muscular ring controlling accommodation
A small opening regulating light entry
A layered tissue converting light to signals
Accommodation in vision refers to the lens
Dilating to admit more light
Blocking ultraviolet radiation
Focusing by changing shape for imaging
Transducing light into neural impulses
Cones are primary for which visual functions?
Motion detection and peripheral fields
Brightness in low light and night vision
Long-distance focusing across the lens
Color vision and fine detail in the fovea
Which cells transmit signals from rods and cones to ganglion cells?
Amacrine cells
Horizontal cells
Photopigment cells
Bipolar cells
The optic nerve is best described as
A membrane that houses photoreceptors
A muscle adjusting the curvature of the lens
A pigment enabling color discrimination
A pathway carrying visual information to the brain
Which brain region receives visual information routed via the thalamus?
Frontal pole
Occipital lobe visual cortex
Temporal hippocampus
Parietal lobe
What occurs at the optic chiasm?
Transduction of light into neural signals
Crossing of optic nerve fibers from each eye
Integration of color and motion features
Release of neurotransmitters to the retina
Parallel processing in vision means the brain
Relies on top-down expectations exclusively
Processes multiple features simultaneously
Ignores color while tracking motion cues
Processes one feature at a time sequentially
Which statements are true about absolute threshold and difference threshold?
Absolute threshold is the minimum stimulus detected half the time
Difference threshold is the smallest detectable change between stimuli
Both thresholds are unaffected by sensory adaptation
Both thresholds depend on a constant percentage as a rule
Select the structures in the correct order along the basic light path into the eye.
Cornea → iris → pupil → lens → retina
Iris → lens → cornea → retina → pupil
Pupil → retina → lens → cornea → iris
Lens → cornea → pupil → iris → retina
Choose all features primarily processed by cones rather than rods.
High-acuity detail at the fovea
Night vision under low illumination
Color discrimination in bright light
Peripheral motion in dim settings
Identify outcomes consistent with Weber’s Law for detecting differences.
Detection depends on adaptation but not intensity
Proportional changes scale with stimulus magnitude
A constant absolute amount works across all intensities
A constant percentage change improves detectability
Which scenarios exemplify top-down processing? Select all that apply.
Noticing perfume less after prolonged exposure
Sensing a bee’s wing only half of the time
Reading a misspelled word correctly due to context
Recognizing a Christmas tree from lines and angles
In the opponent process theory, which statement best captures how color is processed in the brain?
Colors are mixed only in the retina
Colors require auditory cortex input
Colors are processed in thalamus and visual cortex
Colors depend solely on the lens curvature
Which pair represents opponent colors where only one can fire at a time?
Red–blue pairing in afterimages
Green–purple complementary pair
Red–green opponent pair
Black–white luminance pair
