Q4_PR1_W5&6_M3_Strategies for Data Collection

​Practical Research 1

Quarter 4: Week 5 to 6

Module 3:
Strategies for Data

Collection

TARGET

What you are expected to learn?

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Collects data through observation and interviews. CS_RS11IVd-f-1

2. Infers and explain patterns and themes from data. CS_RS11IVd-f-2

3. Relates the findings with pertinent literature. CS_RS11IVd-f-3

PRE-TEST

Direction: Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from among the given choices. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

Multiple Choice

A distinction between exploratory and descriptive interviewing would be that:

• Exploratory is looking for insights; descriptive is looking for quantification.

• Exploratory is looking for quantification of findings; descriptive is looking

  for insights.

• Exploratory typically would involve conducting more interviews than

  descriptive.

• There is no distinction - they would both be conducted the same way.

Multiple Choice

In group interview there are ________.

• one interviewer and one interviewee

• One interviewer and more than one interviewee

• More than one interviewer and one interviewee

• More than one interviewer and more than one interviewee.

Multiple Choice

The major advantage of interviews is ___________________________.

• the response rate is high.

• they are not time consuming.

• that the researcher can ask more detailed questions.

• that people are more likely to be honest.

Multiple Choice

In participant observation research, the role of the "complete participant" forces

the researcher to be

• discreet about his/her research.

• open and honest about his/her intentions.

• taking copious notes.

• with the group for months and sometimes years.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following steps in the research process occurs AFTER the data is

collected?

• Conduct a literature review.

• Consider theories relevant to your project.

• Formulate the hypothesis.

• Make decisions in terms of past research and theory.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following steps in the research process occurs AFTER the data is

collected?

• Conduct a literature review.

• Consider theories relevant to your project.

• Formulate the hypothesis.

• Make decisions in terms of past research and theory.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements is true?

• Researcher’s bias is never an issue in observation.

• Interview is a better data collection method than observation.

• Observation is a better data collection method than interview.

• Interview can be done to gather supplemental data obtained from

  observation.

Multiple Choice

What is the role of the observer when s/he participates in the activities in the

group under study but the participants are not aware that they are being observed?

• Complete Observer

• Complete Participant

• Participant as Observer

• Observer as Participant

Multiple Choice

Which of the statements is true about unstructured interview?

• The interviewee answers the questions from a list of options.

• The interviewer asks a set of questions that arranged chronologically.

• The interviewer has predetermined questions which s/he would ask

  during the interview.

• The interviewer, with no predetermined questions and list of options,

  asks questions on the context of the study.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements illustrates a direct observation?

• The researcher actively participates in the activities of the group under

  study.

• The researcher asks questions to the participants to gather the data that

  s/he needs.

• The researcher does not participate in the activities of the group under

  study and remains to be a passive observer.

• The researcher establishes good rapport with the group under study in

  order to collect the data that s/he needs in the research setting.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is used when a researcher wishes to obtain a deeper

understanding of a phenomenon?

• Interview

• Observation

• Questionnaire

• Survey

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is true about deductive approach in thematic analysis?

• It is like the emergent code where the codes/themes are determined

  beforehand.

• It is like the present code, where the codes and themes are determined

  beforehand.

• It is like the preset code where the data is the one that determine the

  codes/themes.

• It is like the emergent code where the data is the one that determine the

  codes/themes.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following is true about inductive approach in thematic analysis?

• It is like the emergent code where the codes/themes are determined

  beforehand.

• It is like the present code where the codes/themes are determined

  beforehand.

• It is like the preset code where the data is the one that determine the

  codes/themes

• t is like the emergent code where the data is the one that determine the

  codes/themes.

Multiple Choice

It is a way of bringing the codes together before forming the themes for the data

gathered.

• Coding

• Collating

• Summarizing

• Synthesizing

Multiple Choice

Qualitative data analysis focuses in examining ___________.

• concepts

• numbers

• visions

• words

Multiple Choice

The research activity preceding collating is ____________.

• categorizing

• summarizing

• coding

• synthesizing.

Lesson 1: Collecting Data Through Observation

and Interviews

​JUMPSTART

As an individual, you are curious about many things in life. Your curiosity is marked by queries you have in mind. Oftentimes, you have questions that may be answered by others. Sometimes, you might just personally observe to get answers. In research,interview and observation allow you to gather information that will help you answer

your research questions.

DISCOVER

Read closely the discussion about interview and observation.

OBSERVATION AS A METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA

Observation is one of the means of collecting data in qualitative research. As a method, data can be obtained by watching and listening purposively to people’s behavior (Almeida et al. 2016, 96). According to Kawulich (2012), observation is a primary tool that helps you document what is happening in a particular research setting. Further, she noted that the researcher’s position in the research setting is

taken into consideration as this will affect the quality of data that will be collected, the researcher’s relationship with the participants and the validity of the study.

OBSERVATION AS A METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA

Observation is one of the means of collecting data in qualitative research. As a method, data can be obtained by watching and listening purposively to people’s behavior (Almeida et al. 2016, 96). According to Kawulich (2012), observation is a primary tool that helps you document what is happening in a particular research setting. Further, she noted that the researcher’s position in the research setting is

taken into consideration as this will affect the quality of data that will be collected, the researcher’s relationship with the participants and the validity of the study.

The two major types of observation are:

1) Participant Observation. This type of observation is characterized by the researcher’s interaction or participation with participants and become part of their community (Driscoll 2011, 160). The researcher acts as observer and participant at the same time (Kawulich 2012).

2) Direct Observation. In this kind of observation, the researcher does not participate with the activities of the group under study. S/He acts as a passive observer (Almeida et al. 2016, 96) and records the participants’ behavior.

Observational research is a “successful” instrument to the extent that it satisfies the research objectives by capturing relevant events and participants along with the constructs of interest. There are two tools used in conducting the observation– the observation guide and the observation grid. These tools serve to keep the observer on track towards these objectives and generally facilitate the ethnographic data

gathering process.

Types of Observational Tools

1) Observation Guide

It helps to maintain the observer’s focus while also giving the observer scope to reflect on the context associated with each site. The purpose of this observation tool is to:
-reminds the observer of the key points of observation as well as the topics of interest associated with each; and
-acts as the motivation for a reflexive exercise in which the observer can reflect on his/her own relationship and contribution to the observed at any moment in time (e.g., how the observer was affected by the observations) (Roller and Lavrakas 2015).

Sample of Structured Observation Guide

Sample of Unstructured Observation Guide

2) Observation Grid

The grid is like the guide in that, it helps remind the observer of the events and issues of most import; however, unlike the guide, the observation grid is a spreadsheet or log of sorts that enables the observer to record (and record his reflections of) observable events in relationship to the constructs of interest. The grid might show, for instance, the relevant constructs or research issues as column headings and the specific foci of observation as rows.

When conducting observation in the research setting, a researcher may play the one of the following:

1) Complete Participant. As the term denotes, the researcher is part of the group under study and participates in the group members’ activities. However, the participants are not aware that they are being observed and studied.

2) Participant as Observer. Here, the researcher is still part of the group under study and participates in the group members’ activities. The participants are fully aware that they are being observed and studied.

When conducting observation in the research setting, a researcher may play the one of the following:

3) Observer as Participant. The researcher is not part of the group under study but still participates in the group members’ activities. The participants under study are aware of the research and its objectives.

4) Complete Observer. Here, the researcher is not part of the group under study and does not take part of their activities. The participants are not also aware that they are being observed and studied.

Advantages of Observation

1) It enables a researcher to access things in the research setting that may not seen by the general public (Kawulich 2012).

2) It allows the researcher to give rich and detailed description of the social setting by means of the field notes (Kawulich 2012).

3) It is one of the simplest ways to collect data and does not require too much technical knowledge (Bhasin 2020).

4) It can be done with or without the participants’ knowledge.

Disadvantages of Observation

1) There is a chance of higher observer bias (Bhasin 2020).

2) Participants’ behavior may change because of the presence of the researcher, thus affecting the data to be obtained (Educational Research Techniques 2015).

3) It requires longer time frame to obtain deeper understanding of the research participants.

4) There may be an issue of non-conformity to informed consent.

5) Guidelines in Observation

Here are some guidelines that will help you when doing observation:

1) Be ready with your observation guide and research tools such as audio-video recorder, camera, and notebook.

2) Focus your observation on the research problems that you are trying to answer.

3) Take notes or pictures so that you can use them in giving detailed analysis.

4) Allot ample time in your observation to have a deeper understanding of the subjects you are observing.

5) Observe keenly. What you think about what you observe may be opposite to what is really happening.

6) Ask informal questions from the participants for further clarification.

Becoming a skilled observer includes…

• Learning to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear.

• Practice in writing descriptively.

• Acquiring discipline in recording notes.

• Knowing how to separate detail from trivia.

• Using rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations.

• Reporting the strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective.

ACTIVITY 3.1.1 Let’s Do It!

Direction: Fill out the observation grid below with details of any topic that interest you. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

EXPLORE

Activity 3.1.2: OBSERVE …OBSERVE!

Suggest two situations where participant observation would be desirable/necessary

and two situations where direct observation would be desirable/necessary. Follow

the table format given below.

DEEPEN

Interview

The research interview has been defined as ‘a two-person conversation initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and content specified by research objectives of systematic description, prediction, or explanation. It involves the gathering of data through direct verbal interaction between individuals. It is questioning in the verbal form.

Interview

As a research tool, interview is different from general interviewing in regard to preparation, construction and execution. It is controlled by the researcher to avoid any biasness and distortion. In the research interview, the interviewer asks specific questions pertaining to research objectives and the respondent answers

appropriately.

There are three main kinds of interview that may be used specifically as research tools:

1) Structured Interview. The structured interview is one in which the content and procedures are organized in advance. This means that the sequence and wording of the questions are determined by means of a schedule and the interviewer is left little freedom to make modifications. The interviewer asks a predetermined set of questions which are arranged in chronological order. The interviewee answers each question from a list of options.

There are three main kinds of interview that may be used specifically as research tools:

2) Semi-structured Interview. Here, the interviewer asks a predetermined set of questions. There is no list of options. The interviewee can answer the questions in his/her own words. Follow-up questions can be asked by the interviewer for clarifications.

There are three main kinds of interview that may be used specifically as research tools:

3) Unstructured Interview. The unstructured interview is an open situation, having greater flexibility and freedom. The research purposes govern the questions asked, their content, sequence and wording are entirely in the hands of the interviewer. There is no predetermined set of questions, no list of options, no specific procedures. The interviewer asks questions on the context of the study. The interviewee can answer freely and spontaneously. The interviewer can ask follow-up questions for clarification and for more in-depth information.

Purposes of the interview

As a distinctive research technique, the interview may serve three purposes.

1) First, it may be used as the principal means of gathering information having direct bearing on the research objectives.

2) Second, it may be used to test hypotheses or to suggest new ones; or as an explanatory device to help identify variables and relationships.

3) Third, the interview may be used in conjunction with other methods in a research undertaking. In this connection, Kerlinger (1970) suggests that it might be used to follow up unexpected results, for example, or to validate other methods, or to go deeper into the motivations of respondents and their reasons for responding as they do.

Advantages of Interview

1) The researcher has the opportunity to ask questions directly to the participants of the study.

2) It can provide more in-depth information as the researcher is able to raise follow-up questions to clarify or explore a point.

3) It can supplement information gained from observation, especially those that are non-verbal in nature.

4) The researcher can explain the questions to the participants.

5) It has a wider application since in can be done with younger to older type of population.

Disadvantages of Interview

1) It can be time consuming for the researcher and the interviewee.

2) It requires the researcher to arrange the time and place of interview.

3) A limited number of people can be interviewed due to time restrictions.

4) The data obtained from limited number of participants may not reflect the views of a wider population.

Interview Protocol

An interview protocol is more than a list of interview questions; it also extends to the procedural level of interviewing and includes a script of what you will say before the interview, script for what you will say at the conclusion of the interview, prompts for the interviewer to collect informed consent, and prompts to remind the interviewer the information that she or he is interested in collecting. Interview protocols become not only a set of questions, but also a procedural guide for directing a new qualitative researcher through the interview process.

Writing Successful Interview Protocols

1) Pick a topic that is interesting to you.

2) Research should guide your questions.

3) Use a script for the beginning and end of your interview.

4) Questions should be open ended.

5) Start with the basics.

6) Begin with easy to answer questions and move towards ones that are more difficult or controversial.

7) The phrase “tell me about…”is great way to start a question.

Writing Successful Interview Protocols

8) Write big, expansive questions.

9) Use prompts.

10) Be willing to make “on the spot” revisions to your interview protocol.

11) Do not make the interview too long.

12) Practice with a friend.

13) Make sure that you have set up a second shorter interview to help you clarify

14) If needed, clear your project with your school’s Institutional Research Board (IRB).

Tips for the Interview

1) Start with your script. You developed the script so that you do not inadvertently neglect sharing important information with your interviewee. While you do not need to read the script word for word, it is important that you have it in front of you and you follow it carefully.

2) Collect consent. Collecting consent should be a part of your beginning script. Do not proceed with your interview without collecting it. Give your participant plenty of time to read through the form and ask as many questions about consent as she or he needs to ask.

3) Use some type of recording device and only take brief notes so you can maintain eye contact with your interviewee.

4) Arrange to interview your respondent in a quiet, semi-private place.

Tips for the Interview

5) Be sure that both you and the interviewee block off plenty of uninterrupted time for the interview.

6) Have genuine care, concern, and interest for the person you are interviewing.

7) Use basic counseling skills to help your interviewees feel heard.

8) Keep it focused.

9) LISTEN! LISTEN! LISTEN! Seriously, close your mouth and listen!

10) End with your script.

Tips for the Interview

Conducting qualitative research can be exciting for both the seasoned researcher and the new researcher alike. When others open up their lives for us to investigate, it is a gift for both the speaker who is heard and for the listener who learns something from the investigation. As qualitative researchers who conduct interviews, we are privileged to be able to do research by talking to others.

EXPLORE

Activity 3.1.3:

After what you have learned on collecting data through observation and interview,you are now ready to do the following tasks. Write your answers in a separate sheet \
of paper.

Open Ended

When should you use observation as a method of data collection? When should

you use interview?

Open Ended

Given the different types of observation and interview, which of them would you

use to gather data for a research project? Explain your answer.

Open Ended

You are tasked to conduct a study on COVID-19 and how it changes the lives of

people. What method are you going to use to gather data about this – observation or interview? What specific type of observation or interview will you use? Why do

you think is your chosen method appropriate for the study?

Open Ended

Deepen

Activity 3.1.4

Direction: Identify the key takeaways that you have learned in today’s lesson. Copy

this organizer in your answer sheet. You may add more box/es if you wish.

Lesson 2: Inferring Patterns and Themes from Data in Research

​JUMPSTART

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. explain how themes are generated from the collected data; and

2. infer patterns and themes from the given data.

Open Ended

DIRECTIONS: In the previous lesson, we discussed about the process of collecting

data through observation and interview. In line with that, complete the table below

that with the key words that shows guidelines that will help you in conducting

observation. Place your answers in a separate sheet of paper.

​DISCOVER

Qualitative data analysis is a time-consuming process; it makes you deal with data coming from wide source of information. It is good if all the data you collected coming from varied sources of knowledge work favorably for your research study, but,ironically, some of these may have not strong relation to your research questions.

​DISCOVER

The method that we will give focus to is the Thematic Analysis. This method in qualitative research is based on initial coding and collating and then patterns and themes. Let us dive deeper on these processes.

​What is Coding?

Coding is the process of analyzing the data and searching for essential information that answers the research questions. Another definition of coding says that it is a process of filtering the data. These essential words are marked or labeled or coded.

They are considered essential if they occur or have been mentioned several times by the informants.

​Two types of codes in qualitative research:

1) PRESET are codes that have been identified prior to analysis. It is also called the deductive approach wherein the codes/themes were determined beforehand,

either from related theories or existing knowledge

2) EMERGENT CODES are those that show up during analysis. It is also referred to as inductive approach where the data is the one that determine the codes/themes.

Qualitative researchers use codes to easily identify meanings and group similar patterns or themes that occur or transpire in the interview transcript of each participant. By using codes, the researcher can easily make an inference.

Qualitative researchers use codes to easily identify meanings and group similar patterns or themes that occur or transpire in the interview transcript of each participant. By using codes, the researcher can easily make an inference.

What is collating?

Collating on the other hand is, your way of bringing together the coded data. Giving the data an orderly appearance is putting them in a graph, specifically a table of responses.

PATTERNS AND THEMES

Patterns and themes are words or phrases that collectively describe the experience or thoughts of every participant. These words and phrases become themes because they appear on several occasions and are mentioned by many participants. They represent broad categories of information.

PATTERNS AND THEMES

In order to identify themes, qualitative researchers use codes. Just like what is written above, these codes are simply “labels” that help qualitative researchers identify similar experiences or thoughts.

PATTERNS AND THEMES

Codes that are grouped together are themes. These are the words or phrases that will manifest in the interview transcript and researchers during analysis. Qualitative researchers should be able to identify and locate them. Hence, these words or phrases that describe participants’ experiences and thoughts should be code accordingly for easy reference and classification when interpreting the results.

PATTERNS AND THEMES

This ‘theme’ may be labeled by a word or expression taken directly from the data or by one created by the researcher because it seems to best characterize the essence of what is being said.

Below are the 5-step process to analyze your data:

1) Prepare and organize your data. Make sure that you have the transcript with you, collect all the notes you have taken, documents and other materials needed. Do not forget the sources.

2) Review and explore the data. Read and understand each of those documents and notes.

3) Create initial codes. While you are at the reading mode, this would also be the time to generate codes.

4) Review those codes and revise or combine into themes. After reading and coding all the materials, identify recurring themes, language, opinions, and beliefs.

5) Present themes in a cohesive manner. Lay these themes consistently and taking into consideration the audience, and the goals of your research. The findings should address each theme in turn and refer to your statement of the problem.

Below are the 5-step process to analyze your data:

1) Prepare and organize your data. Make sure that you have the transcript with you, collect all the notes you have taken, documents and other materials needed. Do not forget the sources.

2) Review and explore the data. Read and understand each of those documents and notes.

3) Create initial codes. While you are at the reading mode, this would also be the time to generate codes.

Below are the 5-step process to analyze your data:

4) Review those codes and revise or combine into themes. After reading and coding all the materials, identify recurring themes, language, opinions, and beliefs.

5) Present themes in a cohesive manner. Lay these themes consistently and taking into consideration the audience, and the goals of your research. The findings should address each theme in turn and refer to your statement of the problem.

Techniques on How to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data

Generating themes from a qualitative data can be a bit tricky but the more articles you read the more themes can be produced. Literatures and the personal experience on the subject matter is also important. This means that if you really know your study or topic, then, it would be easier to create themes.

Here are some techniques in identifying themes:

1) Word Repetitions - The researcher should understand what people are talking about by looking at the words they use. Word repetitions can be analyzed by informal mode by simply reading the text and note words or synonyms that people use a lot. And formal analysis of word frequencies that can be done by generating a list of all the unique words in a text and counting the number of times each occurs.

2) Indigenous categories – It is a way of finding themes by looking for a local term that sounds unfamiliar or used in unfamiliar ways. It also refers as "indigenous categories."

Here are some techniques in identifying themes:

3) Key-words-in-context (KWIC) - is a technique that is based on a simple observation by understanding a concept and looking at how it is used.Researchers identify key words and then systematically search the body of text to find all instances of the word or phrase. Themes get identified by physically sorting the examples into pilesof similar meaning through finding the word and copying its immediate context.

Here are some techniques in identifying themes:

4) Compare and Contrast - Compare approach are based on the idea that themes represent the ways in which texts are either similar or different from each other from the words "constant comparison method.”

5) Social Science Queries – It refers to the interests in understanding how textual data illuminate questions of importance to social science.

THEMATIC ANALYSIS

Thematic analysis is a method for identifying and analyzing patterns and themes within qualitative data and it is also defined as a form of pattern recognition within the data.

Six Phases of Thematic Analysis:

Phase 1. Familiarization with the data: It involves deeper understanding of the data gathered by reading it multiple times. In doing so will help you to gain familiarity of the content.

Phase 2. Coding: It involves generating concise labels or codes. You have to code the whole dataset and make sure that the codes are relevant to your topic then collate them.

Phase 3. Searching for themes: This is now the phase where you will be generating themes from the codes. You may want to go thro

Six Phases of Thematic Analysis:

Phase 4. Reviewing themes: From the initial generation of themes, you may still see some irrelevant themes when you try to connect it with your topic. To prevent this, you have to review the generated themes and then compare it to the dataset and then to your topic.

Phase 5. Defining and naming themes: Once you are done with your final themes, you now have to make a detailed analysis of each. There should be a “story” behind those themes since it will be further discussed in the results and discussion part.

Aside from that, this phase also involves deciding on an informative name for each theme.

Six Phases of Thematic Analysis:

Phase 6. Writing up: This final stage involves knitting together the analytic narrative explanation from each generated theme, data extracts, and contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.

Activity 3.2.1:

DIRECTIONS: Below is a sample of a transcript interview. Write the questions and its focus on the left table. Copy and underline the codes you identified on the verbatim response or answer. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

​

EXPLORE

Activity 3.2.4:

Identify the key takeaways that you have learned in today’s lesson. Copy this organizer in your answer sheet. You may add more box/es if you wish.

DEEPEN

Lesson 3: Relating Pertinent Findings with the Literature in Research

JUMPSTART

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. discuss how patterns and themes are explained in connection to research problem.

2. explain the created patterns and themes from the given data; and

3. relate findings and the literature from the data collected.

Open Ended

DIRECTIONS: In the previous lesson, we discussed about the technique in analyzing

data from patterns and themes from the interview and other sources. In line with

that, arrange according to its sequence the key words that shows the steps in

analyzing data collected. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.

_______ Review those codes and revise or combine into themes.

_______ Review and explore the data.

_______ Present themes in a cohesive manner.

_______ Prepare and organize your data.

_______ Create initial codes.

​DISCOVER

DISCUSSION is the HEART of the research paper.

The discussion section is essentially written for the sake of explaining your findings.

• In very simple terms, what you did to answer the research questions and why

you did it that way.

• It explains the results of your study and connects the results to each research question.

​Importance of a Good Discussion

This section is often considered the most important part of a research paper:

1) it most effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to develop creative solutions to problems based on the findings, and to formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of the research problem you are studying.

2) it is where you explore the underlying meaning of your research, its possible implications in other areas of study, and the possible improvements that can be made in order to further develop the concerns of your research.

​Importance of a Good Discussion

3) It is the section where you need to present the importance of your study and how it may be able to contribute to and/or fill existing gaps in the field.

4) it is also where you state how the findings from your study revealed new gaps in the literature that had not been previously exposed or adequately described.

A good discussion section relates:

o Current findings

o Existing knowledge reflected in Literature.

o Researcher’s own position and interpretation of the situation

o It should/may expose further knowledge gaps for further research.

o It should clearly point to conclusions and recommendations.

APPROACHES TO WRITING YOUR DISCUSSION SECTION

1) Explain your findings

2) Compare the findings

3) Evaluate the findings

4) Infer from the findings

APPROACHES TO WRITING YOUR DISCUSSION SECTION

APPROACH 2: COMPARE THE FINDINGS

APPROACH 3: EVALUATE THE FINDINGS

APPROACH 4: INFER THE FINDINGS

Important Features of Discussion in Doing Research:

1) Placing or relating the findings of research in relation to research questions as well as in the context of existing knowledge.

2) Opportunities to discuss comprehensively what exactly you know about your research topic by discussing the meaningful results of your study.

3) Discussion of the research findings should be well-organized and broad in scope as you relate these findings to pertinent literature.

Important Features of Discussion in Doing Research:

4) The discussion of your research findings should not only tackle the summary

of the results but it should also depict novelty or original thinking.

5) Discussion of the research findings should be well-organized and broad in scope as you relate these findings to pertinent literature.

Interpreting Your Results: The Role of the Literature Review

Interpreting your findings is about seeing whether what you found confirms or does not confirm the findings of previous studies in your literature review. Your findings may also offer novel insights or information.

Interpreting Your Results: The Role of the Literature Review

For qualitative studies, organize this section around your themes. For each question or theme, go back to your literature review and look at the major findings of previous studies. Relate your findings to the findings of those previous studies and indicate where your findings aligned and where they did not align. Offer possible explanations as to why your findings corroborated or contradicted the findings of previous studies.

SUGGESTED STEPS IN DISCUSSION

1) Summarize and discuss important findings.

o Reiterate results in a straightforward manner.

o Use easily understood language.

2) Describe “WHY”.

o How meaningful

o How does it cover the research area

3) Link findings

o Make connections to similar research as stated in literature review

o Explain why it is different or similar.

SUGGESTED STEPS IN DISCUSSION

4) Limitations

o Discuss limitations but not every single one

o Think like a critic.

5) Future research

o What are some questions that remained unanswered

o Make positive and practical suggestions/recommendations

The skill in writing a successful discussion is in moving backwards and forwards

between others' research and your own research, making it clear:

• which has been done by other people.

• which has been done by you.
• and how they complement each other.


Tip

Remember that you are dealing with three different issues and the three must be clearly differentiated for the reader.

EXPLORE

Open Ended

Activity 3.3.1: Let’s Do It!

1) Write about your data for 5 minutes. You don't have to show what you write

to anyone.

Open Ended

2) Now read over what you've written. Have you learnt anything? Is there

anything there you want to develop further? You could try highlighting key

words or identifying any points that need further investigation.

DEEPEN

Activity 3.3.2: Write Me Down

Open Ended

1) Write down all the things you know now that you didn't know when you

started the research. Use a single sentence for each item.

Open Ended

2) Sort the sentences into groups. Give each group a heading. Now check the

headings against your research question(s). Do all the headings relate to the

research question(s)? Do the questions need refining?

Open Ended

3) Use these groups and headings to make a plan of the points you want to

make in your discussion.

Gauge

Direction: Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from among the given choices. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following refers to the way of collecting data by watching and listening

to an interaction or a phenomenon?

• Interview

• Observation

• Questionnaire

• Survey

Multiple Choice

Which of the following denotes a person-to-person interaction between two or more

individuals with a particular purpose?

• Interview

• Observation

• Questionnaire

• Survey

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements characterizes a participant observation?

• The researcher serves as an observer in the research setting.

• The researcher observes without the knowledge of the participants.

• The researcher acts as an observer and a participant in the research setting.

• The researcher observes without interaction with the participants of the

  study.

Multiple Choice

Which statement is true about structured interview?

• The researcher prepares a list of options for each question.

• The researcher can ask questions without following the interview guide.

• The researcher is completely free to use words, context and structure of the

  interview.

• The researcher follows a predetermined set of questions in the interview

  guide for uniformity of information.

Multiple Choice

Which is the best approach to use when the researcher is more interested in

behavior rather than perception of people?

• Interview

• Observation

• Questionnaire

• Survey

Multiple Choice

What is the other way to find themes where you have to look for local terms that

may sound unfamiliar or are used in unfamiliar ways.

• Compare and Contrast

• Indigenous Terms

• Social Science Queries

• Word Repetitions

Multiple Choice

It is a technique in identifying the data that is based on the idea that themes

represent the ways in which texts are either similar or different from each other.

• Compare and Contrast

• Social Science Queries

• Key-words-in-context

• Word Repetitions

Multiple Choice

It refers to the technique in identifying data that can be analyzed formally and

informally.

• Indigenous Terms

• Social Science Queries

• Compare and Contrast

• Word Repetitions

Multiple Choice

This phase involves generating brief labels that identify important features of the

data that might be relevant to answering the research question.

• Coding

• Reviewing for themes.

• Familiarization with Data

• Searching for themes.

Multiple Choice

It is the final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative and data

extracts and contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.

• Familiarization with Data.

• Searching for themes.

• Reviewing for themes.

• Writing – up.

Multiple Choice

It is a technique of identifying themes where searching interviews for evidence of

social conflict, cultural contradictions, informal methods of social control, things

that people do in managing impersonal social relationships, methods by which

people acquire and maintain achieved and ascribed status, and information

about how people solve problems.

• Compare and Contrast

• Indigenous Categories

• Social Science Queries

• Word Repetitions

Multiple Choice

It refers to the technique of identifying themes that is based on a simple

observation. If you want to understand a concept, then look at how it is used. In

this technique, researchers identify key words and then systematically search

the corpus of text to find all instances of the word or phrase.

• Compare and Contrast

• Indigenous Categories

• Key-words-in-context

• Social Science Queries

Multiple Choice

It is the phase that involves reading and re-reading the data, to become immersed

and intimately familiar with its content.

• Defining and naming themes

• Familiarization with the data

• Searching for themes

• Writing up

Multiple Choice

The phase involves developing a detailed analysis of each theme, working out the

scope and focus of each theme, determining the ‘story’ of each. It also involves

deciding on an informative name for each theme.

• Defining and naming themes

• Searching for themes

• Familiarization with the data

• Writing up

Multiple Choice

In this phase, themes are typically refined, which sometimes involves them being

split, combined, or discarded.

• Defining and naming themes

• Familiarization with the data

• Reviewing themes

• Writing up