4 units of abstract time in geologic time scale

(a)  

It is s also called the “upstream” segment of the oil and gas industry. The role of the (a)   industry is to find and produce hydrocarbons-which means oil or petroleum, and gas. These will then be delivered first, to the refineries and then, to the consumers.

4 Eons of geologic time scale

(a)  

Hydrocarbon fields are discovered in (a)  

Petroleum Systems consists of 5 elements (a)  

It is where the formation of hydrocarbon liquids from an organic rich rocks with kerogen and bitumen accumulates.

(a)  

Generation of Oil and gas depends on

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Movement of newly generated HC out of their source rock

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A porous and permeable rock.

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An impermeable rock that acts as a barrier to further migration of HC

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Trap/s that is formed in geologic structures such as folds and faults. Formed by geologic events such as folding or faulting of rocks units

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Trap/s resulted from changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities or other sedimentary features such as reefs or buildup

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Types of stratigraphic traps

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It is a modelling tool that has been developed by geologists to simulate basin geology and HC generation processes through geological times

(a)  

study of the Earth

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means "earth"

(a)  

speech/study

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the Scottish geologist, experimental agriculturalist, chemical manufacturer, naturalist, and physician, is the “father of modern geology.”

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The earth is divided into four layers:

(a)  

2 types of crust

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mostly driven by solar energy, the external heat engine.

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Solidification of these sediments by burial to form sedimentary rocks

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driven by energy from the sun and from gravity

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process by which chemicals naturally break down rocks and soil.

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the conversion of rocks or minerals into smaller particles by living organisms

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large rock pieces are broken into smaller fragments. water is main agent

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the process by which material such as rocks, sand, and soil are dissolved, loosened, or worn away from one part of the earth's surface and deposit elsewhere.

(a)  

-water collects in the pores and cracks of rocks and expands when frozen, then splits the rock. -causes street potholes to expand

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includes processes that occur directly in association with glacial ice, such as abrasion, plucking, physical and chemical erosion by subglacial meltwater, as well as processes that are enhanced or modified glaciation

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Known as water cycle, it is a continuous movement of water between hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere in a cyclic manner.

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Occurs when any and all forms of water particle falls and reach the ground

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Process of interrupting the movement of water in the chain of transportation events leading to streams

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Physical process involving movement of water through the boundary area where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil

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movement of water through the soil and its layers by gravity and capillary forces

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biological process that occur mostly in the day. Water inside of plants is transferred from the plant to the atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual leave openings.

(a)  

flow from drainage basin or watershed appears in the surface streams

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locations that occur in the planetary water cycle

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Major External Processes: Driven by Energy(Heat)in the Earth's Interior

(a)  

cells in the mantle move the plates. Hot in the center, less dense magma rises up due to heat. When the magma reaches the surface, it cools and sinks back down creating a circular pattern of movement. This is a continuous process. Hot, goes up. Cold, goes down.

(a)  

originally proposed in the late 1960s. Included new understanding of the seafloor and explanation of driving force. Describe the lithosphere as being broken into plates that are in motion. Explain origin and distribution of volcanoes, fault zones and, mountain belts

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a Greek word meaning shock; a kin to earthquake, shake, or violently moved.

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plates collide and one is pulled into the mantle and recycled

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- plates move apart and create new lithosphere

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formed when plates slide horizontally past one another

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the study of vibrations within earth.

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- travel through different materials at different speeds

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can only travel through solids slower than p-waves or shear waves propagate through rock but are not able to travel through liquid

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a mysterious layer beginning approximately 200 km above the boundary (core- mantle boundary) between the core and mantle

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primarily composed of iron, with lesser amounts of nickel

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aid in distinguishing divisions of the earth into inner core, outer core D", lower mantle, transition region, upper mantle, and crust

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distinguished and mapped through seismic tomography.

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solid and unattached to the mantle, suspended in the molten outer core

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or mesosphere, sometimes called the fertile layer

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contains 15.3% of the mantle-crust mass

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contains 0.147% of the mantle-crust mass

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contains 0.554% of the mantle-crust mass

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the rigid, outermost layer of the earth comprising the crust and upper mantle

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low-density crust and upper mantle that are permanently buoyant

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What are the Crustal Plate Boundaries

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discipline concerned with the stressing, deformation,and failure of rock

(a)  

Rock mechanics + application to engineering Geotechnical Engineering: (Rock mechanics + soil Mechanics) + application to engineering used more by civil engineering industry Specialized Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics: Mining, Petroleum, Reservoir, Borehole

(a)  

It is the study of the mechanical state of the earth's crust and the processes involve in it. It understand the interaction between stresses, pressure and temperature. It involves the discipline of soil mech, and rock mech.

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special-purpose map made for the purpose of showing subsurface geological features.

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portray an interpretive, three dimensional view of the rock, sediment, and soil units arranged by their age.

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a map portraying varying elevations as well as the form or structure of the terrain through contour lines. It consists of contour lines which are imaginary lines connecting points of equal elevation.

(a)  

This map shows valleys and hills and the steepness or gentleness of slopes

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can be defined as a geological map depicting geologic data or features below the Earth's surface, especially a plan of mine workings or a structure contour map of a petroleum reservoir or an underground ore deposit, coal seam, key bed, faults, joints, or thickness etc

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an application in geology that allows geological pictures as formation boundaries, faults and sand bodies to be interpreted along planes of cross section

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Types of Subsurface Maps

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Defined in terms of the relationship between vertical stress and two mutually perpendicular horizontal stress

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It is a set of linear equations in principal stress space describing the conditions for an isotropic material will fail with any effect from the intermediate principal stress being neglected

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Show by means of contours the varying thickness of the rock intervening between 2 reference planes.

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it is where subsurface structure are mapped on any formation boundary, unconformity, or producing formation that can be identified and correlated by well data.

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A science that treats geology as it was during geologic period

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A map that shows the paleogeology of an ancient surface. It shows the formation boundaries projected in part into the area w/c the overlying formation has been eroded

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it is a type of paleogeologic map and this map shows the overlying formation that is present

(a)  

These maps depends on geophysical anomaly which after correction may be attributed to some geologic phenomena

(a)  

Maps used for mapping various kinds of chemical analysis of rocks and their fluid properties

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Advantage of geological survey

(a)  

These methods measure the physical properties of minerals and rocks to suggest the presence or absence of economic mineralization or petroleum concentration.

(a)  

Methods in geophysical survey

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It is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves.

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3 basic elements involved in seismic field acquisition

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There are two types of seismic surveys:

(a)  

were common early last century for reconnaissance and salt dome exploration. They are seldom acquired nowadays, except for deep crustal studies, because seismic reflection surveys provide far greater information and accuracy for hydrocarbon exploration

(a)  

when a sound crosses an interface between layers of 2 diff. velocities the wave is (a)  

a (a)   experiment is conducted by initiating a seismic source and recording the reflected waves using one or more seismometers

On land the typical seismometer used is a small portable instrument is known as a (a)   that convert ground motion into an analog electrical signal

In water (a)   converts pressure changes into electrical signals

3 Distinct Stages in the Seismic Technique

(a)  

Seismic processing is a computerized treatment given to a recorded seismic trace/traces using various seismic parameters so as to eliminate or suppress undesired coherent and random noise components interfering with the seismic reflectors. Processing of seismic data involves alteration of seismic data to suppress noise, enhance signal and migrate seismic events to the appropriate location in space. Processing steps typically include analysis of velocities and frequencies, static corrections, Deconvolution, Normal Moveout, Dip Moveout, Stacking, and Migration, which can be performed before or after stacking

(a)  

The interpretation of features mapped using a seismic data set is based on acoustic impedance differences of subsurface material. A seismic source emits acoustic energy at regular intervals. The transmitted acoustic energy is reflected from boundaries between mediums of different acoustic impedances.

(a)  

involve taking reading about a kilometer apart throughout the region with a device called gravimeter. The gravimeter measures the gravitational field and this reading correlates with the density of the region. By studying the differences in the density, one can predict which areas of the region might contain oil

(a)  

usually made with magnetometers borne by aircraft flying in parallel lines spaced two to four kilometers apart at an elevation of about 500 meters when exploring for petroleum deposits. Ground surveys are conducted to follow up magnetic anomaly discoveries made from the air. Such surveys may involve stations spaced only 50 meters apart. Magnetic effects result primarily from the magnetization induced in susceptible rocks by the Earth's magnetic field. Most sedimentary rocks have very low susceptibility and thus are nearly transparent to magnetism. Accordingly, in petroleum exploration magnetics are used negatively: magnetic anomaliesindicate the absence of explorable sedimentary rocks.

(a)  

The electric prospecting is carried out at the stage of regional investigation in order to obtain qualitative data (or, in some cases, even quantitative data) on the subsurface tectonic framework of the area. The accuracy of this method is largely dependent on the geological conditions (presence of highly resistant beds, persistence of their composition & thickness, resistivity of underground waters, etc).

(a)  

3 types of electrical survey

(a)  

is a direct-current resistivity techniques that measures electric potentials generated by a current source either on the earth's surface or subsurface

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a passive electrical technique that involves measurement of naturally occurring ground potential

(a)  

a current-stimulated electrical method that provides information on the subsurface chemical reaction taking place by using an electrode set-up

(a)  

the (a)   for petroleum is the search for chemically identifiable surface or near-surface occurrences of hydrocarbons and their alteration products, which serve as clues to the location of undiscovered oil and gas accumulations.

stress placed on tectonic plates which causes them to run into each other

(a)  

is defined as a Force(F) acting over a given Area(A). causes the build-up of strain, which causes the deformation of rocks and the Earth's crust.

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is a type of stress that causes the rocks to push or squeeze against one another. It targets the center of the rock and can cause either horizontal or vertical orientation. It causes rocks to fold or fracture

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a tensor which describes the density of forces acting on all surfaces passing through given point

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Causes a rock to elongate or pull apart. Two separate plates can move farther away from each other, or the ends of one plate can move in different directions.

(a)  

magnitude of stress in any direction relative to a point in a rock mass

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the stress on rock mass due to the overlying column of rock

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produced when plate motion produces a maximum and minimum compressive stress direction

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3 main type of stress

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Causes rocks to slip past each other. Usually happens when two plates rub against each other as they move in opposite directions.

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the force acting upon a rock which causes change in its shape or volume

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it is the shaking and trembling that results from movement of rock beneath earth's surface

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Physical change created by stress

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sbdivided into compression, when stresses are squeezing a rock and tension

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refers to the changing earth's surface caused by tectonic forces that are accumulated in the crust and then cause earthquakes

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For small differential stresses, less than the yield strength, rock deforms like a spring. It changes shape by a very small amount in response to the stress, but the deformation is not permanent.

(a)  

when rocks fail as rigid solids.The rocks will break, rather than bend, under these conditions to produce fractures.

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It is the type of deformation wherein rocks deform to large strains without macroscopic fracturing.

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defines as the horizontal principal stress magnitudes with respect to the vertical stress

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graphical representation that enable the visualization of the normal and shear stress on various inclined plane

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