State in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized and the person feels alert

ex: aware

State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness

Ex: sleep, daydreaming, faded, turnt

focused attention

(high level of concentration)

some awareness, but minimal attention require

(daydreaming, “autopilot”)

due to head injury, anesthesia, coma

a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24-hour period

feeling of tiredness

Animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators

When we sleep

Sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage

Why we sleep

Which one of this don't happen when you don't get enough sleep?

Which stage of sleep is it?:

(5–10 minutes/cycle) , Theta waves , Hypnagogic imagery , Myoclonic jerks

Which stage of sleep is it?:

(10–30 minutes/cycle) , Sleep spindles and K-complexes , As much as 65 percent of total sleep

Which stage of sleep is it?:

(15–30 minutes/cycle) , Delta waves , Crucial to feel rested; suppressed by alcohol , 40 percent of sleep in children; 25 percent in adults

Which stage of sleep is it?:

(10–20 minutes/cycle) , Brain activity similar to wakefulness , Becomes longer as the night goes on

Which is REM Sleep

stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelidsdreaming occurs here as well

all the other stages of sleep Stages 1-4

Rare (most common in children)

Extreme fear and screaming

Person doesn’t fully wake-up

N3 (deep sleep, not REM)

Bad Dreams during REM sleep

Mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares

Acting out dreams

20% of population

Problems falling asleep, staying asleep, getting quality sleep

Multiple bursts of not breathing

Sleep “Seizure”

Sudden slip into REM sleep

Freud

Dreams preserve our sanity by allowing us to gratify forbidden or unrealistic wishes

Easier definition: Dream material may be so threatening or disgusting that it was disguised in dreams

Dreams help us sift through memories of our everyday experiences and thoughts

Ex: thinking during sleep.

Dreaming is an unimportant by-product of RANDOM stimulation of brain cells

Cerebral cortex tries to make sense of this random stimulation which results in a fragmented story

realistic perceptual experiences in the absence of external stimuli

the sense that our consciousness has left our body

reported by people who've nearly died or thought they were going to die

experiences involve a sense of unity or oneness with the world

Discovered by Franz Mesmer (Paris, 1783)

Goal: To restore the balance of universal fluids within his patients

used large magnets and iron rods

Hypnosis works on the immediate, conscious mind.

A “hidden observer” remains aware.

Ex: Driving home and not remembering.

People are playing the role expected of them in the situation

People may not be aware that they are pretending

Which statements are true about hypnosis?

depressants

stimulants

Hallucinogens

A physiological need

Tolerance

Unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (more than likely when you stop using a substance)

A psychological need

Continued use because they think they need it

Clearer definition: When you start to get nervous because you’re running low on that substance. You start to get upset.

Drugs that increase functioning of the nervous system

Examples: caffeine,nicotine,cocaine,amphetamines

increase heart and breathing rates, and other autonomic functions to provide energy

Withdrawal: depressed mood, insomnia, irritability, anxiety, problems concentrating, increased appetite

Natural drug (coca plant)

Effects – Euphoria, energy, power, pleasure

Animal research – Rats will use it until they starve to death

drugs that decrease functioning of the nervous system

Ex: Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines, alcohol, narcotics(opioids)

Depressant drugs that have a sedative effect

Drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress

Rohypnol (The date rape drug)

alter sensations and perceptions

synesthesia

Ex: Ecstasy, LSD, Marijuana

plant based drugvisions, delusions, paranoiastrong psychological dependencemixed evidence for physical dependence

A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

Who discovered classical conditioning?

When a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that produces a reflexive behavior

the phase during which a CR is established

Example: In the Little Albert experiment, the pairing of the white rate with a loud clangng sound that frightened the child

the reduction and elimination of the CR after the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS

easier definition: its the disappearance of a conditioned response to a stimulus. for example: when you no longer fear something

Example: Nate was in a horrible car accident. For many months afterwards, whenever he approached the intersection of the accident he felt anxious. But after a while, he didn’t feel anxious any longer and now has no trouble passing through.

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.

Example: The smell of food which makes you hungry. ; A cold breeze makes you shiver.

A reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus.

Example: scratching after an itch. gasping in pain after being stung by a bee.

A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.

Example: A bell for dogs (meaning the food is coming shortly)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Running for food when a bell rings

John B. Watson

Brought Classical Conditioning to America

Study:

Wanted to learn how we developed emotions like fear over the courses of our lives

Used a 9 month old baby

Showed cute animals to him.

He had used a conditioned stimulus

Everytime the baby saw the animals again, he would go behind his head and would bang a hammer on metal.

Now, everytime he saw the animals, he didn’t need a hammer to be afraid of them.

Who did the Little Albert Study?

Any negative emotional response that becomes associated with a stimulus. This results in classical conditioning.

American Psychologist

Law of Effect

If a behavior results in a positive outcfome, that behavior will be repeated

Precursor to Operant Conditioning

Gave Operant Conditioning its name

Learning depends on what happens after the response: the consequence

Learning by outcome.

any event that increases the future probability a behavior will occur

Bringing good things to an organism

Examples: Money, Praise, Food

ex: Giving a gold star on homework, resulting in a student studying more (increases  target behavior) ; Taking notes? You get chocolate!

Taking bad things from an organism

Examples: removing pain, toothache, hunger

ex: getting a low grade on an exam and it encourages you to study (increases target behavior) ; Taking notes? You won’t get squirt bottle to the face.

pattern where reinforcement is applied

reinforcement every so often

provides a reward at consistent times

ex: monthly paycheck

amount of time must pass before reinforcement is applied again; amount of time changes

ex: catching a fish

 you have to do something a certain amount of times before reinforced again

example: you get $20 for making 5 products

you don’t know when the reinforcement is going to occur

example slot machines

Punishing a response by adding or experiencing an unpleasant stimulus

example: Yelling at a child for bad behavior. ; A student talking out of turn in the middle of class and the teacher scolds the child for interrupting. (decreases target behavior) ; Texting? you get a squirt bottle to the face!

Punishing a response by removing a pleasurable stimulus

Example: Taking away a favorite toy, stopping a child from throwing future tantrums. (decreases target behavior) ; Texting? I’m going to take away your chocolate!

 learning that is hidden until it becomes useful

 learning new behavior by watching someone else perform the behavior

Ex: Imitation

Which element of observational learning is it?:

you have to pay attention in order to learn

Which element of observational learning is it?:

you have to be able to remember what you saw

Which element of observational learning is it?:

you must be capable of imitating

Which element of observational learning is it?:

you must have the desire to perform the behavior

What is this an example of?:

A bell elicits a response in a dog

What is this an example of?:

A rat will press a bar 120 times per hour to achieve a reward or avoid punishment.

What is this an example of?:

After watching TV violence, children are more likely to show aggressive behaviors.

The retention of information over time

The same mechanisms that serve us well most of the time can sometimes cause us problems

example: going beyond the available information to make sense of the world ; memory illusion

when remembering, we actively reconstruct memories, not passively reproduce them.

example: not hearing a word, but you heard many related words ; put together the list of words on a common theme

Select the three main divisions of memory?

Converting sensory information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems

Holding onto information for some period of time.

Using information in storage

The very first system in memory, in which raw information from the senses is held for a very brief period of time.

Who studied sensory memory?

iconic memory (about 1 sec.)

echoic memory (about 4 secs.)

The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used.

An active system that processes the information in short-term memory

Which Memory is it:

Large Capacity

Maintains Information

Active Part of Memory

Which memory is it?:

Smaller Capacity

Maintains and manipulates information

Active Part of Memory

the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently

What does Long-term memory branch off to first?

(Implicit memory) Motor skills, habits, classically conditioned reflexes

implicit

habits, practiced skills

generally not conscious, but we know it exists because we can see it happen

e.g., “muscle memory” ; typing without looking at a keyboard

explicit memory, semantic, episodic

General knowledge

Personal information

Daily Activities and Events

Autobiographical memories

information that is conscious and known

memory for facts

procedural memories

implicit, habits, practiced skills

generally not conscious but we are aware that it exists because we see it happen

When a synapse is repeatedly stimulated: – More dendrites form – More neurotransmitters are released – Increased communication between neurons

consolidation of information form short to long term memory ( formation of new memories)

If you have your hippocampus removed due to severe epilepsy, what all happens?

similar situations at encoding and retrieval

state dependent learning

ex: memorizing and being able to recall what you just learned

repeating a word over and overinformation is active in STM/WM but may not transfer to LTM

ex: repeating the digits of a phone number until you dial them

connects info to prior knowledgeinformation is active in STM/WM and is likely to transfer to LTM

ex: being able to relay what the teacher is saying about a topic from prior knowledge

What are the encoding levels of processing?

newer info impact retrieval of older info

ex: Learning a newly learned dance routine erases the cognitive and musclee memory of a previously learned routine.

older info impacts retrieval of newer info

Ex: If you move into a new house, you might find yourself accidentally writing your old address

memory loss

stimulus for remembering

experience with information can improve late performance

loss of memory for the pasttypically you lose episodic, not semantic information

inability to form new long-term memories

Extremely Rare in Real Life

Extremely Common in TV and Movies

primarily anterograde amnesia

excess protein depositscauses the brain to age extremely fast

Who Was Ebbinghaus?

It never made it into LTM

Ex: maybe it didn’t seem important

Ebbinghaus: First to study memory (1885).

Information decays over time.

Distributed vs. Massed Practice.

Newer info impacts retrieval of older info

and

Older info impacts retrieval of newer info

information to be retrieved must be " pulled" from memory with very few external cues.

Serial position

Primacy Effect

Recency Effect

What is this an example of:

A person in a happy mood remembers happy memories.

recall has failed(temporarily)

tip of the. tongue phenomenon (TOT)

What is this an example of:

You cannot remember where you left your keys when your friend reminds you of them.

the person only needs to identify previously learned items

What is this an example of:

Taking a multiple-choice quiz requires that you acknowledge the correct answer out of a group of available answers.