Emphasis on both quantitative and qualitative methods for interpreting complex biological phenomena.

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means the collection, organization,and management of data.

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A sample from a population is the set of measurements that are collected in the course of an investigation.

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Characteristics or measurements that are collected in the course of an investigation.

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The process or method of sample selection from the population.

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The number of elements or observations to be included in the sample.

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A characteristic or attribute that can assume different values in different persons, places, or things.

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Example: height, weight, blood pressure, blood sugar.

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Refers to a collection of facts, values,observations, or measurements that the variables can be assumed.

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Summarizing data through measures like mean, median, and standard deviation.

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Making predictions or inferences about a population based on sample data.

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Assessing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments.

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Studying disease patterns, causes, and effects in populations.

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Planning and evaluating health

interventions.

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A phenomenon whose values remain the same either from person to person, time to time, or place to place.

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the number of grams in a kilogram, the speed of light in a vacuum, the number of minutes in an hour, and the number of days in a week.

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A phenomenon whose values or categories cannot be predicted with certainty.

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include the color of a person’s hair, the number of children in a family, attitudes towards cerain issues, the weight of a person, and educational attainment.

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those variables that can be measured and ordered according to their quantity or amount orwhose values can be expressed numerically.

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Examples of it include birth weight, head circumference, and population size.

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those that have numerical values that are integers or whole numbers.

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potentially associated with real numbers. Thismeans that they can attain any value, including fractions or decimals.

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are those variables that are used as labels to distinguish one from the other.

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a major activity as the data that we collect in biostatistics is the same data that we organize and manage.

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obtained firsthand, whereas secondary data is obtained from existing data.

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the purpose of the original author may not neessarily be the same as that of the investigator.

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LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT IN

BIOSTATISTICS:

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Categories without a natural order (e.g., blood type, gender).

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Categories with a meaningful order (e.g., severity of asthma:Mild, moderate, and severe).

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Numerical data with equal intervals but no true zero (e.g.,temperature in Celsius).

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Numerical data with a true zero (e.g., respiratory rate, lung volume).

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the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or “labels” to classify or identify the objects.

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represents the “order.” Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named, and ranked.

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The Example of it is Ranking of school students – 1st,2nd, 3rd, etc.

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defined as a quantitative measurement scale, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not in a relative way in which the presence of zero is arbitrary.

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The Example of it is temperature (Fahrenheit), temperature (Celsius).

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a type of variable measurement scale. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.

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the foundation of scientific research, enabling researchers to derive meaningful insights, answer critical questions, and validate hypotheses.

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Types of Data

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Descriptive and categorical data that cannot be measured numerically.

Examples include gender, color, or types of

diseases.

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Numerical data that represents measurable quantities.

Examples include height, weight, and

temperature.

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Whole numbers, such as the number of patients in a ward.

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This can take any value within a range, such as blood pressure readings.

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Gathering new and original data directly from sources.

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Data Gathering Methods:

Surveys and Questionnaires, Interviews, Observations, Experiments

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Using pre-existing data collected by others for a different purpose.

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the process of selecting a subset of individualsor units from a larger population to represent the whole.

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The population is divided into clusters, usually geographically or naturally occurring groups. Entire clusters arerandomly selected, and all individuals within the chosen clusters are surveyed.

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The researcher selects participants who are easiest to reach or most accessible.

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Surveying people in a shopping mall because they are easily accessible.

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The researcher selects participants based on their knowledge or expertise or because they meet specific criteria.

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Interviewing experts in a field for insights into a new technology.

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-The population is divided into subgroups, and the researcher selects participants non-randomly to meet a specific quota for each subgroup.

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Surveying a fixed number of individuals from different income levels without random selection.

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Initial participants are selected, and they then refer to other participants. This process continues, creating a "snowball" effect.

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Studying individuals in underground social groups or hidden populations.

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the process of presenting data in a graphical or pictorial format to enhance understanding and communication.

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A graphical representation of categorical data using rectangular bars.

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graphical representations of continuous data.The group data points into intervals (bins) and displays the frequency of data within each interval using adjacent bars.

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a circular statistical graphic divided into slices to illustrate the proportion of different categories within a dataset. Each slice represents a category's share of the whole.

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uses points connected by lines to show trends or changes in data over time or another continuous variable.

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displays data points on a two-dimensional plane to depict the relationship between two quantitative variables.

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The tendency of statistical data to get concentrated at certain values is called the “Central Tendency” and the various methods of determining the actual value.

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a set of values that is not organized or classified as a group.

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the sum of all observations divided by the number of observations. It ss written in statistical terms as:

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An alternative measure of central location, perhaps second in popularity to the arithmetic mean, is the median.Arrange the data is ascending order

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It is the value of the observation that occurs with the greatest frequency. A particular disadvantage is that, with a small number of observations, there may be no mode.

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If extremely low or extremely high observations are present in a distribution, then the mean tends to shift towards those scores.

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The data can be also classified according to the number of modes

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Public health decision making and action.

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Resulting from surveillance, this aims to identify and learn more about the natural history, scope of clinical.

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intervention methods are appropriate.

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Also known as “shoe leather epidemiology.

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Can be done in conjunction with surveillance and field investigations (the two providing clues and hypotheses about causes and modes of transmission), while these studies evaluate the credibility of those hypotheses

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relative magnitude of two quantities or a comparison of any two values

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The numerator and denominator do not have to be necessarily related

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The numerator is a subset of the denominator, comparison of a part to the whole.

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Frequency measure with which an event occurs in a defined/specified

population (example: age group) over aspecified period of time (e.g. year)

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also known as incidence proportion; proportion of the population that develops illness during an outbreak.

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Two types of prevalence:

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the prevalence measured at a particular point in time; the proportion of persons with a particular disease or attribute on a particular date.

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the prevalence measured over an interval of time, the proportion of persons with a particular disease or attribute at any time during the interval.

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the occurrence of NEW cases of disease or injury in a population over a specified period of time.

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