Investigating Science Module 8

Investigating Science Module 8

by Jessica Amos

​Nuclear Meltdowns

• Initially using nuclear energy was seen as positive (60% approval in the US).

• Nuclear reactor accidents, such as Three Mile Island (1979, USA), Chernobyl (1986, Ukraine) and Fukushima (2013, Japan), shifted the public’s opinion about the continued use of nuclear power (less than 20% in the US).

• After the disasters the German government discarded all policies supporting this technology. The long-term storage of nuclear waste is expensive and bad for the environment.

• An accident during the processing of spent nuclear waste in Russia caused a radioactive plume to spread over much of Europe.

• ​Nuclear reactor explosions, nuclear waste storage and disposal all worked to change public opinion.

Multiple Choice

Which of these did not cause the negative change in public opinion of nuclear energy?

• nuclear energy is cheap and efficent

• nuclear reactor meltdowns

• the cost environmental impacts of storing nuclear waste

• the accident during the processing of spent nuclear waste

​The Smallpox Vaccine

• ​Smallpox was a deadly disease in humans on average, 3 out of every 10 people who got it died. People who survived usually had scars.

• ​ Edward Jenner noticed that milkmaids who had gotten cowpox were protected from smallpox.

• ​Jenner guessed that exposure to cowpox could be used to protect against smallpox. He took material from a cowpox sore on milkmaid and inoculated it into the arm of 9-year-oldJames Phipps. Months later, Jenner exposed Phipps several times to variola virus, but Phipps never developed smallpox.

• ​In 1967, the World Health Organisation (WHO) embarked on an ambitious program to eradicate the disease through vaccination. In 1980, WHO achieved that goal, with smallpox becoming the first human disease to be eradicated through vaccination.

​The Smallpox Vaccine cont.

• Public opinion of vaccination has declined in many parts of the world.

• ​The discredited and retracted publication , that linked MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccination with autism is an essential tool used to sway public opinion against vaccination.

• Reduced vaccination rates are associated with increased rates of infectious diseases: in the UK, a sharp decline in pertussis vaccination rates in 1974 caused a whooping cough epidemic in 1978, in which more than 100,000 people contracted with the disease

• In Australia, childhood vaccination rates have remained at 93-94% (average) since 2003 (the Australian government target is 95%) . To increase vaccination rates, the Australian government introduced the ‘No Jab No Play, No Jab No Pay’ policy

Multiple Choice

What has been the impact of the discredited and retracted publication , that linked MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccination with autism?

• Increased number of people refusing vaccines

• More people now die of noninfectous than infectous diseases 

• Increased cases of infectous diseases

• Increase in number of unvacinated children resulting in the 'no jab no play' policy in Australia

​Damming Rivers

• Rivers are important parts of ecosystems

• Hydroelectric power represents about 16.1% of total power generation world wide and 7.5% in Australia

• Hydro Tasmania and the Snowy Mountains Hydro Scheme are the largest producers of hydroelectric power in Australia.

• The construction of dams cause significant damage to downstream ecosystems.

• The adverse effects of damming in the Amazon River, the Mekong River and other great river systems have generated considerable public antagonism towards their use.

• Increased understanding of complex ecosystems, geology and hydrology, the construction of sustainable dams is now a possibility .

Multiple Choice

Which is not true about daming rivers?

• damming in the Amazon River, the Mekong River have generated considerable public antagonism towards their use.

• The Hydro Tasmania and the Snowy Mountains Hydro Scheme produce most of Australias hydroelectric power

• Damming rivers causes little or no damage to ecosystems down stream

• Hydroelectric power represents about 16.1% of total power generation world wide and 7.5% in Australia

​Scientific Research Regulation

• Scientific research is regulated, both by governments and by scientific bodies. Regulations are based on legal and ethical frameworks and ensure that research is conducted in a manner that conforms to scientific and community standards.

• Some governments pass laws that regulate certain types of research.

• Ethics is a set of moral obligations that define right and wrong

• Institutional research ethics committees ensure that research projects conform to established ethical guidelines.

• Human experimentation must be approved by Human Research Ethics Committees (HRECs),

• Experiments on vertebrates must be approved by Animal Ethics Committees (AEC).

Multiple Choice

Which is NOT an example of an institutional research ethics commity?

• Human Research Ethics Committees (HRECs)

• Animal Ethics Committees (AEC)

• Human Ethical Research Committees (HERCs)

Multiple Choice

Why are there scientific regulatory bodies?

• to make sure that scientific investigations are legal and ethical.

• to make sure that people don't experiment on other people ever. 

• to make sure that people never experiment on vertibrate animals

• To make sure that genetically modified organisms are not created.

Multiple Choice

Which regulatory body would you have to consult in order to preform human trials?

• The Ethical Human Research Committees (EHRCs)

• The Human Research Ethics Committees (HRECs)

• The Human Ethics Research Commitees (HETCs)

• The Human Ethics Committes (HECs)

Multiple Choice

Why do we have institutional research ethics committees?

• To control the kind of research that is preformed.

• To make sure research projects fit in with ethical guidelines.

• To stop plagerism in large research institutions.

• To combat the publish or perish culture in some academic institutions. 

​Genetic modification of sex cells and embryos

• ​The ability to alter the genetic information (using the gene editing tool CRISPR) has the potential to correct disease-causing genetic changes in humans such as HIV, haemophilia and leukaemia.

• Changes to the genetic information of sex cells or pre-implantation embryos can affect future generations of the species.

• The US National Academy of Science released a report developing guidelines to regulate research into genetic editing of sex cells.

• Some countries ban research on the editing of embryonic genomes.

• Most scientists agree that any regulation should be balanced between achieving the goals of fundamental scientific research, and the unethical use of gene-editing technology.

​

Multiple Choice

What are some benefits of genetically modifying humans?

• It can correct genetic diseases like HIV, haemophilia and leukaemia 

• It can be used to alter future generations.

• It can cause cancer

• It is regulated by the US National Academy of Science

Multiple Choice

Which is not an important reason to regulate the genetic modification of sex cells

• It can impact future generations

• It involves the creation of genetically modified human embros

• Genetic modification in unnatural and always unethical

• It is important to make sure that the scientific investigation is not unethical

​Development of biotechnological weaponry

• Biotechnological products (e.g. vaccines, antibodies, gene products and hormones) can also be used to inflict harm.

• Biological warfare and bioterrorism are two areas of concern for many governments.

• Scientific research into deadly infectious agents can generate vital information for treatment, prevention and control of infectious diseases.

• The same research can also be used to cause harm.

• In 2001, the bacterium that causes anthrax was used in a bioterrorism incident in the US.

• Many countries have signed the Biological Weapons Convention (which prohibits the development and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons).

​​Development of biotechnological weaponry cont.

• ​In 2012, scientists conducted research into avian influenza to determine if viruses can acquire new characteristics (the ability to infect new hosts or acquire new methods of transmission). The genetically mutated virus acquired a new ability–airborne transmission.

• From the results scientists suggested that small changes to the viral DNA of avaian influeza could change it to an airborne pathogen.

• After the publication some scientists were concerned that the information could be used to created genetically-engineered pathogens that could be weaponised.

Multiple Choice

Why were scientists concerned about the information found in the 2012 avian influenza investigation?

• People could use the altered avian influenza virus to infect humans 

• Avian influenza could not infect humans so it was not relevant

• The information could be used to create genetically-engineered pathogens

• The experiment made the disease air borne

Multiple Choice

What does the Biological Weapons Convention prohibit?

• the development and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons

• the creation of genetically modified diseases

• the development of biological weapons

• the stockpiling of toxin weapons

Multiple Choice

Which is not an example of a biotechnological product

• pharmaceutical

• vaccine

• gene product

• hormone

Multiple Choice

What is a biological weapon

• A biotechnological product used to cause harm

• An weapon that have a biological affect

• A human made virus

• COVID-19

​Research involving radiation

• Ionising radiation is high energy, shortwave electromagnetic energy (for example, X-rays and Gamma radiation) that can damage DNA and tissues.

• If an investigation involves the use of radiation (e.g. the development of medical imaging), the researcher must specify the parameters of exposure (for example, the type, dose, frequency, anatomy), the age and medical conditions of the participants and if comparable data can be obtained by using other non-radioactive methods, then those methods should be preferably used.

• In Australia, all research involving exposure to radiation must be approved by research ethics committees.

• The Australian Radiation Protect and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA), develops guidelines that inform the regulatory and ethical issues regarding research involving radiation exposure.

​

​

Multiple Choice

What is taken into consideration when people are planning an investigation involving radiation? 

• the parameters of exposure

• the age and medical conditions of the participants

• if similar data be collected without the use of radiation

• All of the above

Multiple Choice

Which is not an true of ionising radiation?

• X-rays and Gamma radiation

• high energy, shortwave electromagnetic energy

• it can damage DNA and tissues

• It is always from radioactive materials

Multiple Choice

What does the The Australian Radiation Protect and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) do?

• Creates guidelines that regulate research involving radiation exposure.

• Creates guidelines that regulate the disposal of nuclear waste

• Regulates nuclear power in Australia

• Monitors nuclear power generation around the world

​Pharmaceutical research

• ​The development of pharmaceuticals has significantly improved the quality of life for people, as well as outcomes for animals.

• The development and use of pharmaceutical products is regulated in Australia by the Therapeutic Goods Administration in Australia.

• New laboratory discoveries must be put through a regime of small and large animal testing, followed by human clinical trials, before they can be approved for human use.

• The testing of pharmaceutical products on animals is a contentious ethical issue.

• The methods used to test the pharmaceuticals in humans also raises ethical issues.

​Pharmaceutical research cont.

• Pharmaceutical companies sometimes trial new pharmaceuticals in countries where ethical research standards are lower.

• Pharmaceutical companies may not release all relevant data about the drugs they manufacture to the regulatory authorities and consumers.

• Some medical practitioners discover drug side effects after the they have been approved for use which leads to the withdrawal of the drugs from the market

• Pharmaceutical companies may not declare a products risks when they advertise their products to the public.

​​Pharmaceutical research cont.

• ​The industry seeks to maximise profits which creates ethical issues.

• Companies may incentivise doctors to use their own brands of drugs over cheaper alternatives.

• Industry members may be on medical boards that set the standards for classifying various conditions which creates a conflict of interest.

• Pharmaceutical companies may also fund University researchers to conduct research, but not publish the findings in peer-reviewed journals.

Multiple Choice

Pharmaceutical testing is sometimes done in countries with lower regulations on human clinial trials

• true

• false

Multiple Choice

Sometimes pharmaceutical companies don't release all relevant data about the drugs they manufacture to the regulatory authorities and consumers.

• true

• false

Multiple Choice

What is the name of the association that regualtes pharmaceuticals in Australia

• Therapeutic Goods Administration

• The Australian Pharmaceutical Regulatory Commity

• The Therapeutic Goods Regulatory Authority

• The Australian Pharmaceuticals Administration

Multiple Choice

Which is not a step in the approval of pharmaceuticals in Australia?

• laboratory discovery

• human clinical trials

• small and large animal trials

• plant trials

Open Ended

Outline some ethical issues associated with the creation of pharmaceuticals.

​Gene manipulation technologies

• Gene manipulation technologies (GMTs)(recombinant DNA techniques, cloning and gene editing technologies) alter the genes of organisms.

• They can be used to correct genetic errors, produce biopharmaceuticals, and improve agricultural outcomes.

• The ethical issues concerning GMTs are; they reduce genetic diversity, and changes in sex cells and embryos, can be passed to future generations and be maintained population.

• The dangers associated with CRISPR are, off-target effects (making changes to the wrong parts of the genome) which can result in conditions such as genetic mosaicism.

• Non-therapeutic uses of GMTs (enhancement of specific traits, or gender selection), are controversial. Justice and equity issues impact on this, genetically engineered genomes can cause class seperation in societies.

​

Multiple Choice

Enhancement of specific traits, or gender selection are examaples of...

• ethical uses of GMT

• Non-therapeutic uses of GMTs

• Therapeutic used of GMTs

• The dangers of CRISPR

Multiple Choice

What is not true of  genetic manipulation technologies?

• they are technologies that alter the genes of organims.

• they're are no ethical issues associated with them.

• they include recombinant DNA techniques, cloning and gene editing technologies

• if they are used on sex cells they can alter future generations

Multiple Choice

genetic mosaicism is a benefit of using CRISPR

• true

• false

Open Ended

Outline some of the ethical issues of GMTs

​Mining Practices

• Mining provides raw materials that are essential for modern living (petroleum, minerals, coal, rare earth metals and gems)

• The mining industry is a significant contributors about 15% of Australia’s GDP

• Mining is complicated and can be damaging to the environment.

• Environmental impacts of mining include physical damage (erosion, sinkholes), chemical damage (acid and heavy metal runoffs), pollution of water tables, and damage to ecosystems.

• Mining can also affect the health of miners (skin and respiratory diseases).

• In Australia, state and territory authorities issue mining licences if the mining company demonstrates compliance with the Mining legislation. The compliance includes work health and safety rules, as well as minimising adverse environmental impact.

Multiple Choice

Which is not true about mining in Australia?

• it contributes massivley to the economy

• it provides important resources

• it is unregulated

• it can cause environmental damage

​Bioprospecting

​Bioprospecting refers to the systematic search for and development of new sources of chemical compounds, genes, micro-organisms, macro-organisms, and other valuable products from nature . Bioprospecting allows scientists to identify and develop new compounds for consumer use, health, energy and the environment. Some ethical issues surrounding bioprospecting are sustainable use of resources, respect for indigenous land use and use of indigenous knowledge, as well as ensuring that all parties can engage in benefit sharing. The unethical use of bioprospecting is referred to as biopiracy

Multiple Choice

The systematic search for and development of new sources of chemical compounds, genes, micro-organisms, macro-organisms, and other valuable products from nature is 

• bioprospecting

• ICIP

• the halo effect

• paredoilia

​Cloning

​• In Australia, genetic engineering processes are regulated by the Office of Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR). For certain types of genetic engineering methods, researchers and research institutions must apply for a licence to undertake that research.

• Whole organism cloning is permitted for agricultural uses (animals and plants), provided that approved methods are used.

• Reproductive cloning of humans is prohibited, although research on cloned human embryos is permitted (under strict conditions).

​

Multiple Choice

What is the name of the regulatory body incharge of cloning in Australia?

• The Gene Technology Regulatory Body (GTRB)

• The Australian Gene Technolgy Regulator (AGTR)

• The Office of Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR)

• The Gene Technology Regulator Australia (GTRA)

Multiple Choice

Which is NOT true about cloning in Australia?

• Whole organism cloning is permitted for agricultural uses

• Reproductive cloning of humans is prohibited

• Research on cloned human embryos is permitted

• Research on cloned human embryos is not permitted

Stem cells​

• ​There are three classes of stem cells :

  • Adult stem cells are harvest from specific organs and can only form tissues of those organs.

  • Embryonic stem cells (ESC) can form most tissues in an organism.

  • Induced pluripotent stem cells are adult stem cells that have been induced to behave like embryonic stem cells.

• Research involving vertebrate animal stem cells must be approved by animal ethics committees.

• Research involving human stem cells must be approved human research ethics committees.

• The committees determine if legislative requirements have been met (e.g. human ESC can only be from excess embryos from Assisted Reproductive Technologies).

​

Multiple Choice

Which is NOT a type of stem cell?

• adult

•  embryonic

• induced pluripotent

• cerebral

Multiple Choice

How is stem cell research regulated?

• Human stem cell research must be approved by human research ethics committees.

• Animal stem cell research must be approved by animal research committees 

• The committees determine if legislative requirements have been met

• All of the above

Open Ended

Why is it important to regulate stem cell research?

​Surrogacy

• ​Surrogacy is an arrangement where a woman agrees to bear a child for other people. In Australia, only altruistic surrogacy is permitted (the surrogate cannot receive payments for having the child).

• The four guiding principles of surrogacy in Australia include:

  • the best interests of the child is protected

    the surrogate mother can make a free and informed decision about whether to act as a surrogate,

  • sufficient regulatory protections are in place to protect the surrogate mother from exploitation, and

  • there is legal clarity about the parent-child relationships that result from the arrangement.

​

Multiple Select

Select the four guiding principles of surrogacy in Australia:

• the best interests of the child is protected

• the surrogate mother made a free and informed decision to act as a surrogate

• regulatory protections are in place to protect the surrogate mother

• there is legal clarity about the parent-child relationships that result from the arrangement

• The surrogate is sufficently finacially supported and compensated by the family

Multiple Choice

What is surrogacy?

• When a woman agrees to have a baby for someone else.

• When a woman is payed to have a baby for someone else.

• Someone selling their baby.

• Someone agreeing to give away their baby.

​Genetically Modified Foods

​• Genetically Modified foods (GM foods) are foods from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered.

• Examples of GM foods include crops (soy, rice, wheat), fruits (apples, pineapples, papayas) and (apples, pineapples, papayas) and derived substances (modified starch, sugar and vegetable oil).

• In Australia, all foods that contain GM protein or DNA, as well as those with altered characteristics (for example, increased protein or fatty acids) must be labelled as a GM food.

• Since all GM foods are safety-tested by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ), labelling of GM foods is not mandatory (except for the previous point).

​

Multiple Choice

What is the name of the group that regulates GM foods in Australia

• Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ)

• The Office of Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR)

• The Australian Food Standards Authority (AFSA)

• The Australian and New Zealand Food Standards Authority (ANZFSA)

Multiple Choice

An example of GM foods is 

• crops (soy, rice, wheat)

• fruits (apples, pineapples, papayas)

• derived substances (modified starch, sugar and vegetable oil)

• all of the above

​Organ Transplantation

• ​Organ transplantation is a life-saving medical procedure for patients with organ failure or damaged organs.

• In Australia, organ transplantation processes comply with human rights, as well as the principles of bioethics.

• The organs donated for transplantation must be obtained without exploitation or coercion.

• There should not be inequity or bias in the selection of recipients for organ transplantation. The allocation of recipients should be transparent, and the information made publicly available.

• All parties involved should be allowed to make decisions in a free and voluntary manner but ensuring that informed decision-making is facilitated.

​

​Space Exploration

Technology for space exploration and research	Technology for human society
Energy for spacecraft and satellites	Photovoltaic cells
Food for astronauts	Freeze drying of foods
Remote control of space vehicles (for example, the Mars rover)	Autonomous vehicles and mapping software (Google maps)
Radioastronomy (the study of signals from black holes)	Wi-Fi and Local Area Networks
Satellite and telescopic imaging	Medical imaging systems (including Artificial Intelligence algorithms)
Spacesuits	Fire-fighting suits

Open Ended

Give one example of how space travel has lead to the development of a new technology

​Medical-surgical devices

• Medical devices are designed to diagnose, prevent, treat and monitor medical conditions (e.g. surgical equipment, syringes, gloves, pacemakers, baby incubators and implants).

• In the US in the past 20 years, advances in medical technology have resulted in a 56% reduction in hospital stays, 25% decline in disability rates, 16% decline in annual mortality and increased life expectancy of approximately 3.2 years.

• Recent innovations have lead to reduced the size of cardiac pacemakers from a large box-like device to one that weighs two grams, 3D printing allows personalised replacement structures (e.g. 3D-printed organs for organ replacement surgery).

Open Ended

Outline one benefit of a development in medical-surgical technology

Multiple Choice

What are medical-surgical devices used for?

• diagnose medical conditions

• prevent medical conditions

• treat and monitor medical conditions

• all of the above

​Surgical Procedures

• Surgery before the modern era was dangerous and positive outcomes were doubtful.

• Scientific advances have reduced hospital admissions and time of work, as well as morbidity and discomfort for patients

• Germ theory lead to hygiene and disinfection practices which improved patient outcomes, anaesthetic gases made invasive procedures possible, there have been advances in imaging technology and instrumentation (laparoscopic surgeries have replaced large incisions)

• Recent developments in robotic surgery may change the way surgeries are conducted in the future, they may be used to conduct minimally-invasive surgeries.

Multiple Choice

Which is not a result of developments in surgical technologies?

• reduced hospital admissions

• reduced morbidity and discomfort

• robotic surgeries are now common

• surgeries that once needed large incisions can now be done laparoscopically

​Water purification and wastewater treatment

• ​Water-borne illnesses can affect lots of people very quickly (about 1.3 million Americans a year become ill from drinking contaminated water).

• Water may be contaminated by physical (particulates), chemical or radiological substances or by water-borne pathogens.

• Water purification occurs at a community or at an individual level

• In Australia, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) sets the standards of drinking water.

• Surface and groundwater sources can be contaminated by waste (human, animal and chemical), and runoffs from farms and built-up areas.

• In cities, wastewater is treated before it is discharged. Solid wastes are removed through filtration and settling, and the wastewater is then disinfected by chemical (for example, chlorination or ozone) or UV irradiation.

• due to water purification the number of waterborne infections diseases has declined sharply in many societies affording better health and quality of life to the people living in those areas.

• Clean water and sanitation are not available in many parts of the world, and people living in those areas suffer from preventable diseases.

Multiple Choice

Why is water purification important?

• it reduces the transmission of water born pathogens

• it puts fluorine in the water that prevents cavities

• ground water can not be contaminated so it does not need to be purified

• when waste water is released from cities it is not treate

Multiple Choice

Who sets the standards for drinking water in Australia

• National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC)

• Australia Water Safety Commission (AWSC) 

• Australian Health and Medical Research Association (AHMRA)

• National Water Health and Safety Council (NWHSC) 

​Vaccination

• ​Vaccination has been instrumental in reducing the rates of infectious diseases around the world.

• Vaccinations generate immunity against an infectious disease by injecting people (and animals) with harmless versions of the pathogens, this makes the immune system generate immunity against the pathogen and provide protection against the disease.

• Vaccination can benefit members of the community in which the vaccinated person is located (through herd immunity and pathogen transmission).

• By the end of the 20th century, smallpox, polio and yellow fever were virtually eliminated.

• Vaccinations resulted in a 73% drop in measles deaths between 2000 and 2018 worldwide .

• Recent developments in science and vaccine technology (for example, nanotechnology) and vaccine delivery (for example, vaccine patches) will increase the global reach of vaccination, ensuring equitable access to healthcare for vaccine-preventable diseases.

Multiple Choice

Put the steps below in order:

1) the pathogen that causes a disease is identified and isolated

2) person is injected with an inactive form of the disease

3) An inactive form of the pathogen is created

4)immune system develops immunity to the disease

• 1,2,3,4

• 4,2,1,3

• 1,3,2,4

• 3,2,1,4

Open Ended

What have been some benefits of vaccination?

​Research Funding

• Industry-sponsored research: Corporations fund research that is focused on developing solutions to problems and innovation. It is driven by profitability (e.g. increased sales, generating patents). Google spent about 15% of it's revenue ($21.4 billion) on research projects, but in most cases, 80 cents of every dollar is are spent on product development, and 20 cents is spent on research.

• University research project budgets: In Australia, universities undertake about 33% of all R&D. University research is mostly funded by the Australian government. Government funding universities occurs at two levels: (i) competitive research grants (where research proposals are assessed and funded based on their merit); (ii) research block grants (non-competitive funds given to research universities to support research programs). Research projects at universities (including those with involve industry collaboration) are usually funded for 3 - 5 years. After which the researchers must reapply for funding. If unsuccessful, those projects may be abandoned. So scientific research projects must fit within these timeframes and large research projects that require extended time periods for data collection and analyses cannot be easily funded.

• ​Governmental budgets and limited time priorities: Funds for R&D from the government are allocated to research programs at universities, business , government research agencies and non-governmental research institutes. Through its competitive grants schemes, specific scientific research priority areas are funded.

Open Ended

Pick a type of funding for scientific research and explain a drawback or limitation