Data Pt 1

Data

Objectives

1.4 Explain the value of data and information.
Data and information as assets • Importance of investing in security • Relationship of data to creating information • Intellectual property (Trademarks, Copyright, Patents) • Digital products • Data-driven business decisions (Data capture and collection, Data correlation, Meaningful reporting)

1.5 Compare and contrast common units of measure.
Storage unit (Bit, Byte, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB) • Throughput unit (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, Tbps) • Processing speed (MHz, GHz)

Units of Measure (Bits/Bytes)

The basic unit of computer data is the binary digit or bit, which can represent two values (zero or one). Computer memory and file sizes in Windows are measured in multiples of bits. The first multiple is the byte, which is eight bits. A double byte is 16 bits. As a byte represents very little information in terms of file sizes and storage capacity, the following multiples are used:

Units of Measure (Bits/Bytes)

• KiloByte (KB)—1000 bytes (or 103 or 10*10*10 bytes). Small files are often measured in KB.

• MegaByte (MB)—1000*1000 bytes (or 1,000,000 bytes). Many files would be measured in megabytes.

• GigaByte (GB)—1000*1000*1000 bytes (1,000,000,000 bytes). Gigabytes are usually used to talk about disk capacity.

• TeraByte (TB)—1000 GB (1,000,000,000,000 bytes). Some individual disk units might be 1 or 2 terabytes but these units are usually used to describe large storage networks.

• PetaByte (PB)—1000 TB or 1015 bytes (1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes). The largest storage networks and cloud systems would have petabytes of capacity.

Units of Measure (Bits/Bytes)

You should also be aware that a different system of notation is available to describe these multiples in binary terms (base 2), where the multiples express powers of two rather than powers of 10:

• KibiByte (KiB)—1024 bytes (210 bytes).

• MebiByte (MiB)—1024*1024 bytes (or 1,048,576 bytes).

• GibiByte (GiB)—1024*1024*1024 bytes (1,073,741,824 bytes).

Units of Measure (Bits/Bytes)

In practice the KiB, MiB, and GiB notation is rarely used, but the binary measurement is. Consequently, you should understand what is generally meant by terms such as "MB" and "GB" in different contexts.

• In the context of the Microsoft Windows operating system, file sizes and memory capacity are always quoted as binary measurements (base 2). For example, when you see that Windows reports 2 GB memory, this means 2048 MB, not 2000 MB.

• Storage capacity is typically quoted by vendors in decimal measurements (base 10). For example, a hard disk advertised with a capacity of 300 GB has an "actual" capacity of approximately 279 GiB. Some operating systems, such as Ubuntu Linux and macOS, also use the decimal notation for system memory, disk capacity, and file sizes.

Units of Measure (Throughput Units)

When data is transferred between components in the computer or between computers over a network, the throughput rate that a particular connection can sustain is measured in bits per second (bps). As with storage, the basic unit of bits per second would result in writing out very long values, so throughput can be expressed more efficiently using the following multiples:

Units of Measure (Throughput Units)

• Kbps (or Kb/s)—1000 bits per second. Older computer peripheral interfaces (or buses) and slow network links would be measured in Kbps.

• Mbps (or Mb/s)—1,000,000 bits per second. Many internal computer interfaces have throughputs measured in Mbps. Wireless networks and residential Internet links also typically have this sort of throughput.

• Gbps (or Gb/s)—1,000,000,000 bits per second. The latest PC bus standards and networks can support this higher level of throughput.

• Tbps (or Tb/s)—1,000,000,000,000 bits per second. This sort of capacity is found in major telecommunications links between data centers, cities, and countries.

Processing Speed Units

While throughput rates describe how much data is transferred over a link, the speed at which a computer works can also be described independently of how much data is involved in each operation. A computer's internal clock and the speed at which its processors work is measured in units of time called Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz represents one cycle per second.

Processing Speed Units

• Megahertz (MHz)—1 million (1,000,000) cycles per second. Older PC bus interfaces and many types of network interfaces work at this slower signaling speed.

• Gigahertz (GHz)—1000 million (1,000,000,000) cycles per second. Modern CPUs and bus types plus fiber-optic network equipment work at these much faster speeds.

The Value of Data

When you think about data, it is important that you understand that it represents more than just encoded numbers and letters. For organizations, and even for individuals, computer data can be considered an asset. An asset is something of commercial value. Therefore, it is important that you take steps necessary to protect this asset.

Investing in Security

A mechanism designed to protect an information asset or processing system is called a security control. There are many types of security controls, and they can be classed in different ways. Typically they are designed to prevent, deter, detect, and/or recover from attempts to view or modify data without authorization. Security controls can be costly, both in terms of purchasing hardware and software and in terms of more complex procedures and staff training. The business case for investing in security is made by a calculation called Return on Security Investment (ROSI). To calculate ROSI, you perform risk assessments to work out how much the loss of data would cost your organization and how likely it is that data loss might occur. The use of security controls should reduce both the impact and likelihood of losses, justifying the investment made.

Multiple Choice

Newer hard disks and other large storage networks can be measured in what unit?

• Megahertz (MHz), or 1 million cycles per second

• Terabyte, or 1000 GB

• The bit, which represents two values (0 or 1)

• Mbps, or 1,000,000 bits per second

Multiple Choice

Modern Central Processing Units (CPUs) and bus types plus fiber optic network equipment work at what signal speed?

• Petabyte 1000 TB

• Megabyte (MB) 1000 x 1000 bytes

• Gigahertz (GHz) or 1000 million cycles per second

• Megahertz (MHz) or 1 million cycles per second

Multiple Choice

Small files are often measured in what unit?

• A binary digit/bit, 0 or 1

• Kbps, or 1000 bits per second

• A byte, which is eight bits

• Kilobyte (KB), or 1000 bytes

Security Controls

A mechanism designed to protect an information asset or processing system is called a security control. There are many types of security controls, and they can be classed in different ways. Typically they are designed to prevent, deter, detect, and/or recover from attempts to view or modify data without authorization. Security controls can be costly, both in terms of purchasing hardware and software and in terms of more complex procedures and staff training. The business case for investing in security is made by a calculation called Return on Security Investment (ROSI). To calculate ROSI, you perform risk assessments to work out how much the loss of data would cost your organization and how likely it is that data loss might occur. The use of security controls should reduce both the impact and likelihood of losses, justifying the investment made.

Security Controls

As mentioned previously, a security control is something designed to ensure that data is contained within the information processing system and is only accessible with authorization. Some typical examples of security controls to help protect your data might include:

• Backup—ensure that you maintain copies of your data and that these copies can be quickly and easily accessed when necessary.

Security Controls

Access control—your data might have a value to your business competitors. Therefore, it makes sense to try to control access to stored data. You can use the following technologies to control access:

Permissions—most operating systems provide a number of methods with which you can assign permissions on data files to users and groups of users.

Usage restrictions—you can use rights management software to control what users can do with data files. For example, you can allow specified users to read a file but not to copy or print a file.

Multiple Choice

When data is transferred between components in the computer or between computers over a network, the throughput rate is measured in what unit?

• Bits per second (bps)

• Megabytes (MB)

• Megahertz (MHz)

• Kilobytes (KB)

Multiple Choice

What is the first multiple of a bit?

• The byte, which represents eight bits

• The binary digit or bit, which can represent two values (0 or 1)

• The Kilobyte (KB), which is 1000 bytes

• The Megabyte (MB), which is 1000 x 1000 bytes

Security Controls

Data encryption—this means that data is encoded in some way that only a person with the correct key can read it. Even if someone obtained a copy of encrypted data, they would not be able to read it without the key. This means that rather than try to protect the data, the security system only has to protect the key, which is smaller and easier to defend. Some operating systems offer the ability to encrypt data while it is at rest (when stored on a disk). You can also use technologies to encrypt data when it is in transit between the nodes on a network.

Firewalls—on a network, a firewall can control how hosts and network applications are accessible to one another.

Security Controls

High availability—it is often the case that temporary loss of access to data can lead to high costs for an organization. Consider a situation when financial transactions are not available to a banking institution. You can implement technologies that enable you to ensure your data is available in the event of one or several failures of hardware or software components within your infrastructure. These technologies are referred to as fault tolerance.

Any organization that does not take some, or all, of the preceding steps stands to lose data and in all probability, suffer financial loss as a result.

Intellectual Property

Intellectual Property (IP) is often the most valuable information asset that an organization owns. There are various different types of IP and different ways to protect them from theft.

Multiple Choice

What is a data exfiltration?

• A security breach in which a hacker has attached malicious code to a program and attacked your computer, eliminating your data

• A security breach in which a hacker makes software that looks legitimate but can take control of your computer

• A security breach in which a hacker hides a damaging image or file inside an image, causing damage to your computer

• A security breach that occurs when an individual’s or organization’s data is illegally copied with or without their knowledge

Copyright

Copyright is automatic legal protection granted to certain types of work indicating that the copyright holder owns the right to control the use of the work, including rights of publication, distribution, or sale.

There is no need to apply for copyright or display any copyright notice in order to be protected by it. The creation of the work ensures copyright protection automatically. Nonetheless, in case of a dispute, you might need to prove when the work was created in order to defend yourself against charges of plagiarism. Plagiarism is the unacknowledged or unauthorized use of someone else's work.

Copyright

Most authors and publishers demonstrate that they hold copyright over a work by displaying the copyright symbol © with the date and their name. While copyright laws vary throughout the world, demonstrating copyright in this way is likely to protect the owner in most circumstances. In the USA, proof of authorship can be demonstrated by registering the work with the Copyright Office (copyright.gov).

Copyright does not apply to an idea that is not actualized, nor does it apply to names, phrases, or titles. Copyright applies to both the original content of the work and to original features of its layout, format, and appearance.

Multiple Choice

What is a data breach?

• When your network is attacked by a denial of service attack and all of your cloud information is inaccessible

• When your network exposes private data publicly, whether or not the data is actively stolen

• When your anti-virus software blocks a hacker from accessing your data

• When the technician accesses your computer with remote desktop software

Copyright

Copyright lasts for a number of years after the owner's death. The exact length of time varies between 15 and 70 years depending on the nature of the work. After this time, provided the copyright has not been extended for some reason, the work becomes public domain and may be used freely. Also, in some circumstances, a copyright holder may have waived their rights and designated the work as public domain.

Multiple Choice

Older computer peripheral interfaces and slow network links are measured in what type of throughput unit?

• Kbps, or 1000 bits per second

• Gigabyte (GB), or 1000 x 1000 x 1000 bytes

• Gbps, or 1,000,000,000 bits per second

• Megabyte (MB), or 1000 x 1000 bytes

Copyright

Even though copyright is not granted to an idea, the ownership of copyright is not transferred if you purchase an edition of the copyrighted work. So, for example, ownership of this book does not give you ownership of the copyright in this book, and you are forbidden to copy or distribute it to others. In a similar way, purchasing a software application does not give you the right to use it in any way you want. Take another example: you download a song recording from an Internet website.

Copyright

There is no copyright symbol displayed, but in fact the copyright in the recording is held by Widget Music, who has not given permission for the recording to be distributed in this way. You have broken the law by downloading the song, and the website owner has broken the law by making the song available for download.

Copyright

Copyright can be transferred however. For example, if you create a piece of work as an employee of a company, you will hold the copyright to the work, unless your terms and conditions of employment contain a clause saying otherwise (which they probably will). Ownership of copyright can also be sold, as is common with the rights to music recordings.

Multiple Choice

What throughput capacity is found in major telecommunications links between data centers, cities, and countries?

• Gbps, or 1,000,000,000 bits per second

• Mbps, or 1,000,000 bits per second

• Kbps, or 1000 bits per second

• Tbps, or 1,000,000,000,000 bits per second

Copyright

Most types of original, created work are covered by copyright whether the work is printed, broadcast, distributed on a CD, CD-ROM, DVD, or other type of computer disk, exhibited in a gallery or theatre, or published on the Internet. Examples include books, films, plays, computer software, games, and artwork.

Note that a work does not have to be "artistic" to secure copyright; technical subject matter (such as an automobile's driver's handbook) is protected too. Also, if material is stored electronically, the type of file has no bearing on copyright; text, graphic, audio, and video files are protected equally.

Trademarks

As copyright is not given to the selection of a name, if a company wants to promote its goods it will normally trademark its name and/or logo. A trademark must be distinctive within the industry in which the company is selling goods and services. An ordinary trademark is indicated by the ™ symbol. A registered trademark is indicated by ®.

If you re-use or imitate an existing trademark, you are liable to legal action from the owner.

Patents

A patent is legal protection for some kind of invention. Unlike copyright, a patent can apply to an idea so long as the idea is original (or novel), useful, and distinctive or non-trivial. If you have registered the patent, you do not actually have to have made a copy of the invention or put it into practice. A patent must be applied for and registered; however, there is no automatic protection, as there is for copyright. In a lot of cases the registration must be international, or you have no basis for action against people in other countries infringing upon your patent. This can be complex as different countries have different standards for accepting patents. Patents are registered for a limited time only.

A patent infringement is where someone uses, makes, sells, or imports your invention without your permission. It does not matter whether the use was intentional or not.

Multiple Choice

What is a copyright used for?

• It is a legal protection granted to certain types of work that gives its holder the right to control the use of the work, including rights of publication, distribution, or sale.

• It is the protection of a name or logo that a company can use to promote its goods.

• It protects an idea or invention without the need to put it into practice or create it.

• It protects an idea when you send a copy of your own work to yourself.

Digital Products

A digital product is one that is sold or distributed as binary computer data. Examples of digital products include software, computer games, ebooks, music tracks, streaming video, video downloads, and so on. Digital products typically have low manufacturing and distribution costs, though hosted products can have substantial infrastructure costs. The downside is that digital products are quite easy to copy and steal.

Various copy protection or Digital Rights Management (DRM) systems have been invented to try to enforce "pay-per-use" for digital products. When you purchase a digital product, the vendor may license the file for use on a restricted number of devices. You generally need to use your account with the vendor to authorize and deauthorize devices when they change.

Data-driven Business Decisions

As well as having importance and value as an asset, data and information are critical in driving business decisions and strategies. For example, data can help a company become more efficient and develop better products and services:

• Production and fulfilment—analysis of things such as process flows, manufacturing and assembly, delivery and transportation networks, and ordering and billing systems provides the opportunity to make them more productive (efficient). Better productivity reduces costs and can improve customer satisfaction.

• Sales and marketing—information about individual consumers gleaned from web search and social media histories allows for personalized advertising. Large data sets of the same information aggregating the activity of millions of consumers can be used to identify trends and develop products and services to meet changing demands and interests.

Multiple Choice

What do you call an action through which someone uses, makes, sells, or imports your invention without your permission?

• Patent infringement

• An intellectual property crime

• Copyright infringement

• A technocrime

Data Analytics (Relationship of Data to Information)

The process of using data in this way is usually called analytics. In an analytics process, you can think of data being used to create information in the following way:

• Data is the raw values collected by the system. The system must have some way of tagging or normalizing these values, similar to the way that data is defined with different types, so that they can be used for comparisons. For example, a web server might log whenever a page is visited and record information about the visitor, such as the time, the location, the type of browser, how long they spent viewing the page, or any link from the page that was clicked. All these things are data points with distinct types and formats.

• Information is some level of summarization of the individual data points. For example, you could use the logs of page visits to work out how many unique visitors there were (as opposed to the same visitor viewing the page more than once).

• Insights are things that inform meaningful business decisions. For example, from the information provided by the analysis of unique visitors, you may devise a plan to increase unique visitor numbers through better marketing or page design.

Multiple Choice

What is used to protect a name or logo?

• A copyright of the name and logo will allow you to maintain the right to control and use them.

• A patent will protect a name or logo.

• • Sending a copy of your own name or logo to yourself will protect it.

  
  

• A trademark protects a unique element such as a company name or logo.

Multiple Choice

What is data correlation?

• The presentation of information in a meaningful output

• The raw data itself

• The process of analyzing the whole data set and finding connections and links between data points

• The process of capturing and collecting data and information

Facilitating Data-driven Business Decisions

Following the definitions of data, information, and insights set out above, it follows that you need systems to support these processing, analyzing, and reporting functions.

• Data capture and collection—data points can be collected from many different sources. In the previous example, most of the data points come from web server log files. The Internet of Things facilitates the use of sensors attached to all kinds of components, packages, and appliances to capture huge amounts of raw data. As well as collecting the data, it must be stored and secured. A traditional way of storing data is a relational database, but such structured data stores are being replaced (or supplemented) by semi-structured data warehouses.

• Data correlation—the information layer requires software to perform data correlation. This means analyzing the whole data set and finding connections and links between data points. For example, software may find a correlation between page visitors and the color schemes used on pages, with pages that are predominantly blue attracting more visitors than pages that make more use of yellow. The ability of software to perform data correlation without much human intervention is being greatly boosted by the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning systems.

• Meaningful reporting—to inform human decision making at the insights layer, the information identified by the analytics system must be presented in ways that humans can analyze and interpret. The system must support search and query tools plus charts and graphs and other ways to present information pictorially. There is also the security requirement; only authorized users should be able to query the information store.

Multiple Choice

In Information Technology (IT) terminology, what is ROSI and how do you calculate it?

• Radio signaling protocol; ROSI is the calculated use of abbreviation or slang over radio communications.

• Return on Security Investment; to calculate ROSI, you perform risk assessments to work out how much the loss of data would cost your organization and how likely it is that data loss might occur when an attacker removes data from your network without authorization.

• Return on Spending Index; to calculate ROSI, divide your revenue by spending to find the return.

• Reporting of Safety Information; to calculate ROSI, you must compare your company's safety performance against a national or stage average to come up with the incident rate.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following statements about the protection of data is true?

• Data cannot be protected because it has no material substance.

• Nobody can take data or information without you knowing.

• If you run a small business, you are not vulnerable to hackers because they go after big corporations.

• Data can be considered an asset and as such it has commercial value.

Multiple Choice

What is the first step needed to begin a data-driven business decision?

• Meaningful reporting

• • Business decisions should not be data driven.

  
  

• Set-up of a data capture and collection system

• Correlation of data