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Forensic Science 1st Semester Final Exam Review

Total questions: 158

Worksheet time: 1hrs 21mins

Name
Class
Date
1.

Eyewitness testimony in a courtroom can be __________________.

a)

unfair since it is so accurate

b)

unimportant to the crime

c)

unreliable and inaccurate

d)

a distraction for the jurors

2.

What type of evidence is usually the evidence that is used to exonerate those falsely convicted in the Innocence Project?

a)

ballistics

b)

DNA

c)

eyewitness accounts

d)

chemicals

3.

What was started in 1992 by Scheck & Neufeld that helps exonerate innocent people convicted of crimes.

a)

The Scfeld Investigative Group

b)

The Innocence Project

c)

Supreme Court case against Eyewitness testimony

d)

Neufeld Scheck Institute

4.
Which of the following is the best definition of forensic science?
a)
The science of studying dead people.
b)
The application of science to the law.
c)
The application of science to medicine.
d)
The study of poisons.
5.

Interpreting the information that we received from our senses is...

a)

perception

b)

observation

c)

investigating

d)

remembering

6.

A belief based on past experiences or personal beliefs.

a)

opinion

b)

observation

c)

objective thinking

d)

investigation

7.
A person thought to be guilty of a crime or offense
a)
victim
b)
officer
c)
suspect
d)
bad guy
8.

A person harmed, injured, or killed as a result of a crime

a)

officer

b)

victim

c)

out of luck

d)

suspect

9.
Which of the following is an observation of the picture?
a)
The person is wearing a T-shirt
b)
It is a sunny day
c)
The person is going to a birthday party
d)
The gift is a DVD player
10.

Every second we are gathering data using:

a)

sight

b)

smell

c)

touch

d)

sound

e)

All of the senses

11.

When faced with a gap in our recollection or memory, the brain will:

a)

create a blank space and let you know you do not remember

b)

fill in the gap with information that may not be accurate

c)

connect the hemispheres which allows accurate recall

d)

compensate by using the olfactory center which is usually not used during memory recall.

12.

When collecting information, our brain will apply our ______________________ about the surroundings or the event taking place.

a)

reality

b)

prior knowledge

c)

processing

d)

concentration

13.

Even after individuals are shown evidence that their memory may be faulty or incorrect, the can still resist accepting the truth. This is because perception can be more powerful than ___________________

a)

ballistics

b)

reality

c)

memories

d)

stimuli

14.

Which of the following does NOT affect your observational skills?

a)

whether you are alone or part of a group

b)

the number of people in the area

c)

the type of activity going on around you

d)

the presence of other distractors like animals or weapons

e)

your eye color

15.

One of the key attributes of a forensic scientist:

a)

to be a good communicator of evidence in writing and in court

b)

to process information systematically

c)

to know that perception is faulty

d)

all of the choices are attributes of a forensic scientist

16.
a person who has seen someone or something related to a crime and can communicate his or her observations
a)
Eyewitness
b)
Suspect
c)
Opinion
d)
Forensic Investigator
17.
uses DNA to solve post-conviction cases to exclusively decide guilt or innocence 
a)
Deductive Reasoning
b)
Observation
c)
Analytical Skills
d)
Innocence Project
18.

Data a person collects with his or her senses...

a)

Fact

b)

Opinion

c)

Observation

d)

Perception

19.

New information mixed with personal knowledge and experience received from the senses contributes to...

a)

observation

b)

perception

c)

fact

d)

opinion

20.

A forensic investigator is only interested in...

a)

proving guilt or innocence

b)

solving the crime

c)

testifying in court

d)

collecting/examining evidence

21.
A forensic investigator must be able to do all of the following EXCEPT...
a)
observe
b)
interpret
c)
report
d)
pass judgement
22.

When evaluating eyewitness testimony, the investigator must discriminate between fact and:

a)

Observation

b)

Opinion

c)

None of these choices

23.

An interesting aspect of our perception is that we believe what we see and hear, even though our ability to be accurate is flawed

a)

True

b)

False

24.
Eyewitness accounts of crime-scene events vary considerably from one person to another.  What you observe depends on your level of:
a)
Interest
b)
Stress
c)
Concentration and the amount and kind of distraction that may be present
d)
All of the choices 
25.
Forensic scientists
a)
only exist in CSI movies and TV shows. 
b)
investigate crimes by collecting and analyzing physical evidence.
c)
solve every crime.
d)
live a very glamorous life.
26.

A fact is a statement or information that can be verified.

a)

True

b)

False

27.

What we perceive about persons depends, in part, on their mannerisms and gestures.

a)

True

b)

False

28.

Our emotional state influences our ability to see and hear what is happening around us.

a)

True

b)

False

29.

The first task of forensic scientists is to find, examine, and evaluate evidence from a crime scene.

a)

True

b)

False

30.

One of the most important tools of the forensic investigator is the ability to:

a)

determine the sentencing of a convicted suspect

b)

observe, interpret and report observations clearly

c)

report assumptions clearly

d)

None of these choices.

31.

Criminal investigations depend on the observation skills of all involved. Those involved include:

a)

forensic scientists

b)

police investigators

c)

witnesses

d)

All of these choices

32.

Reasoning from facts is

a)

optional

b)

logical

c)

opinion based

33.

What a person perceives using his or her senses is a(n

a)

observation

b)

fact

c)

opinion

d)

perception

34.

When a witness describes what they thought happened, they are providing a(n)

a)

observation

b)

fact

c)

opinion

d)

perception

35.

Interpreting information received from the senses is a(n)

a)

observation

b)

fact

c)

opinion

d)

perception

36.

Deriving a conclusion from the facts using a series of logical steps is

a)

analytical skills

b)

deductive reasoning

c)

a fact

d)

an eyewitness observation

37.
Any physical location in which a crime has occurred or is suspected of having occurred
a)
Forensics
b)
Accomplice
c)
Crime Scene
d)
Alibi
38.
Any material items that are present at the crime scene
a)
evidence
b)
accomplice
c)
detectives
d)
police officers
39.
Typically the first to arrive at a crime scene and they secure the scene
a)
detectives
b)
specialists
c)
district attorney
d)
police officers
40.
Refers to small evidence like hairs of fibers
a)
physical evidence
b)
trace evidence
c)
suspect
d)
witness
41.

A location other than where the crime took place, but is in the same way related to the crime and where evidence is found

a)

Primary Crime Scene

b)

Secondary Crime Scene

c)

Trace Evidence

42.

A material that can be related to a SINGLE source.

a)

Trace Evidence

b)

Class evidence

c)

individual evidence

43.

A written record of all people who have had possession of an item of evidence.

a)

Chain of Custody

b)

Trace Evidence

c)

Locard exchange

44.

example of this evidence is an eye witness account of a crime, or a recording of the crime.

a)

Direct Evidence

b)

indirect evidence

c)

Circumstantial evidence

45.

indirect evidence, or evidence used to imply what happened at the crime scene

a)

direct evidence

b)

Circumstantial evidence

c)

secondary evidence

46.

material that connects an individual to a GROUP that have similar characteristics.

a)

individual evidence

b)

first responder

c)

Class evidence

47.

The first person on the scene

a)

Medical examiner

b)

CSI investigator

c)

First Responder

48.

Where the crime took place

a)

Secondary Crime Scene

b)

Frist Responder

c)

Primary Crime Scene

49.

This person documents the crime scene and collect physical evidence

a)

Crime Scene investigator

b)

First responder

c)

Specialist

50.

Another name for this person is the coroner

a)

Specialist

b)

Medical Examiner

c)

Detectives

51.

This person looks for leads and interviews the witness

a)

Detective

b)

Medical examiner

c)

First responder

52.

These people are called upon for their expertise, an example would be forensic scientist like entomologist.

a)

Medical Examiner

b)

Specialist

c)

Coroner

53.

A cross transfer of evidence between a suspect and victim

a)

Chain of Custody

b)

District Attorney

c)

Locard Exchange principle

54.
The ability to establish the exact whereabouts of an item of evidence and under whose control it was from its collection at the crime scene to its presentation in the courtroom and everywhere in between is called
a)
chain of command
b)
record of evidence
c)
chain of custody
55.
Define the "Locard's Principle."
a)
the scientific examination of evidence in a criminal investigation
b)
states that criminals always take a trace of something with them or leave a trace of something behind at the scene of the crime
c)
a type of evidence
d)
the person who runs the Locard School
56.
Person who determines the preliminary cause of death at the crime scene and conducts an autopsy
a)
detective
b)
CSI unit 
c)
medical examiner
d)
attorney
57.
"With contact between two items, there will be an exchange." This is known as _____
a)
physical evdience
b)
Locard's exchange principle
c)
Forensic exchange principle
d)
the law of forensics 
58.

A multidisciplinary approach in which scientific and legal professionals work together to solve a crime.

a)

Crime scene investigation

b)

Crime scene reconstruction

c)

Primary crime scene

59.

A hypothesis of the sequence of events from before the crime was committed through its commission.

a)

Crime scene investigation

b)

Crime scene reconstruction

c)

Secondary crime scene

60.

Evidence that proves an alleged fact, such as an eyewitness account of a crime.

a)

Individual evidence

b)

Direct evidence

c)

Circumstantial evidence

61.

The first police officer to arrive at a crime scene

a)

Winning officer

b)

First responder

c)

Priority officer

62.

A kind of evidence that identifies a particular person or thing.

a)

Class evidence

b)

Individual evidence

c)

Direct evidence

63.

A folded paper used to hold trace evidence.

a)

Paper bindle

b)

Envelope

c)

Package

64.

The location where the crime took place

a)

Secondary crime scene

b)

Crime scene investigation

c)

Primary crime scene

65.

A location other than the primary crime scene, but that is in some way related to the crime, where evidence is found.

a)

Primary crime scene

b)

Secondary crime scene

c)

Crime scene investigation

66.

class evidence

a)

material that connects an individual or thing to a certain group of individuals or things

b)

the documented and unbroken transfer of evidence

c)

(indirect evidence) evidence used to imply a fact but not to prove it

d)

the first police officer to arrive at a crime scene

67.

A mathematical method of estimating positions of objects at a crime scene while measuring - at least two fixed points are identified and at least two evidence points are measured from each fixed point to form a triangle.

a)

Exploded Sketch

b)

Baseline Mapping

c)

Rectangular Coordinate Mapping

d)

Triangulation Mapping

68.

Measuring technique in which two baselines are identified like two adjacent walls and evidence is measured off each

a)

Exploded Sketch

b)

Baseline Mapping

c)

Rectangular Coordinate Mapping

d)

Triangulation Mapping

69.

A permanent, fixed point of reference used in mapping a crime scene, like a corner of a building or a tree.

a)

subdatum point

b)

datum point

c)

bindle

d)

triangulation

70.

comparison microscope

a)

the central core of a hair fiber

b)

material that connects an individual or thing to a certain group

c)

the tough outer covering of a hair composed of overlapping scales

d)

a compound microscope that allows the side by side comparison of the samples, such as of hair or fibers

71.

amorphous

a)

without a defined shape; fibers composed of a loose arrangment of polymers that are soft, elastic, and absorbing

b)

the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa

c)

dense, strong fiber that resists rot and light damage

d)

The transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source (such as a carpet) to a person (suspect), and then to another person (victim)

72.

crystalline

a)

geometrically shaped; fibers composed of polymers picked side by side, which make it stiff and strong

b)

the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide

c)

dense, strong fiber that resists rot and light damage

d)

fibers that have been spun together

73.

direct transfer

a)

dense, strong fiber that resists rot and light damage

b)

the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa

c)

a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern

d)

The transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source (such as a carpet) to a person (suspect), and then to another person (victim)

74.
fiber
a)
the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide
b)
the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa
c)
dense, strong fiber that resists rot and light damage
d)
fibers that have been spun together
75.

mineral fiber

a)

fibers that have been spun together

b)

the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide

c)

dense, strong fiber that resists rot and light damage

d)

a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern

76.
linen
a)
dense, strong fiber that resists rot and light damage
b)
the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa
c)
a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern
d)
fibers that have been spun together
77.

monomer

a)

a small molecule that can bond to other monomers to become a polymer

b)

the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa

c)

a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern

d)

fibers that have been spun together

78.

natural fibers

a)

comes from animals, plants, or minerals, provided from fur, hair, and webbing, a fiber produced naturally

b)

the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide

c)

a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern

d)

fibers that have been spun together

79.
regenerated fibers
a)
derived from cellulose and are mostly plant in origin
b)
the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide
c)
a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern
d)
fibers that have been spun together
80.
secondary transfer
a)
The transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source (such as a carpet) to a person (suspect), and then to another person (victim)
b)
the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa
c)
things like clothing, carpets, and upholstery
d)
fibers that have been spun together
81.

silk

a)

the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide

b)

collected from the cocoons from the caterpillar

c)

things like clothing, carpets, and upholstery

d)

The transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source (such as a carpet) to a person (suspect), and then to another person (victim)

82.
synthetic fiber
a)
a fiber made from a man-made substance such as plastic
b)
the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide
c)
things like clothing, carpets, and upholstery
d)
fibers that have been spun together
83.
synthetic polymer fibers
a)
originated with petroleum products and are non cellulose-based fibers
b)
the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide
c)
things like clothing, carpets, and upholstery
d)
fibers that have been spun together
84.

textiles

a)

fibers that have been spun together

b)

the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa

c)

things like clothing, carpets, and upholstery, a flexible, flat material made by. interlacing yarns or threads

d)

The transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source (such as a carpet) to a person (suspect), and then to another person (victim)

85.

thread count

a)

things like clothing, carpets, and upholstery

b)

the smallest indivisible unit of textile, it must be at 100 times longer than wide

c)

number of threads that are packed together for any given amount of fabric

d)

The transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source (such as a carpet) to a person (suspect), and then to another person (victim)

86.
yarn
a)
fibers that have been spun together
b)
the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa
c)
a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern
d)
originated with petroleum products and are non cellulose-based fibers
87.

polymere

a)

a small molecule that my bond to other monomers to become a polymer

b)

the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa

c)

a collection of mineral crystals formed into recognizable pattern

d)

a substance composed of long chains of repeating. molecules (monomers)

88.

warp

a)

a lengthwise yarn or thread in a weave

b)

a crosswise yarn or thread in a weave

89.

weft

a)

a lengthwise yarn or thread in a weave

b)

a crosswise yarn or thread in a weave

90.

the passing of evidence, such as fiber, from victim to suspect or vice versa.

a)

polymer

b)

monomer

c)

secondary transfer

d)

direct transfer

91.

the transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source to a person, and then to another person.

a)

primary evidence

b)

secondary evidence

c)

primary transfer

d)

secondary transfer

92.
The lengthwise, parallel yarn in a weave pattern is called the...
a)
Warp
b)
Weft
c)
Yarn
d)
Filament
93.
The smallest indivisible unit of a textile is a...
a)
Fiber
b)
Fabric
c)
Yarn
d)
Thread
94.
A continuous strand of fibers that have been spun together is a...
a)
Fiber
b)
Fabric
c)
Yarn
d)
Thread
95.
In a burn test, these fibers will often shrink back away from the flame.
a)
Synthetic
b)
Natural
96.
Fibers are considered what kind of evidence? 
a)
Individual
b)
Class
c)
Direct
d)
Indirect
97.

Natural fibers come entirely from

a)

plant sources

b)

animal sources

c)

plant, animal, or mineral sources

d)

man made sources

98.

Which of the following is NOT a natural fiber?

a)

Linen

b)

Bamboo

c)

Wool

d)

Nylon

99.
The name for man-made fibers is:
a)
processed fibers
b)
synthetic fibers
c)
natural fibers
d)
modified fibers
100.
A lengthwise yarn or thread in a weave
a)
polymer
b)
warp
c)
weft
d)
yarn
101.

The most common type of regenerated fiber, which is derived from cellulose and is mostly plant in origin, is rayon.

a)

True

b)

False

102.

Synthetic polymer fibers, which all originate with petroleum products, are cellulose-based fibers.

a)

True

b)

False

103.

Polyester has properties similar to nylon except it is easily broken down by light and concentrated acid.

a)

True

b)

False

104.

A disadvantage of manufactured fibers is that they can deteriorate in bright sunlight and melt at a lower temperature than natural fibers.

a)

True

b)

False

105.

Fibers are woven into textiles or fabrics.

a)

True

b)

False

106.

Fibers that have been spun together are called:

a)

textile.

b)

yarn.

c)

mineral fiber.

d)

a fiber.

107.

A small molecule that may bond to other small molecules to become a polymer is a:

a)

monomer.

b)

polymer.

c)

fiber.

d)

None of these choices.

108.

When fibers are transferred directly from victim to suspect or suspect to victim, this is called:

a)

necessary transfer.

b)

absolute transfer.

c)

direct transfer.

d)

None of these choices.

109.

The transfer of evidence such as a fiber from a source to a person, then to another person, is called:

a)

primary transfer.

b)

secondary transfer.

c)

tertiary transfer.

d)

direct transfer.

110.

Early collection of fibers in an investigation is critical. Within 24 hours, an estimated ______ percent of all fibers may have fallen from a victim or been lost from a crime scene.

a)

65

b)

75

c)

85

d)

95

111.

A forensic scientist will ask questions about: (Choose all that apply)

a)

type of fiber.

b)

number of fibers found.

c)

textile from which fiber originated.

d)

fiber color.

e)

where the fiber was found.

112.

Fiber evidence is gathered with: (choose all that apply)

a)

vacuums.

b)

tape.

c)

glue.

d)

forceps.

e)

lint roller.

113.

Two methods that can analyze fibers without damaging them are:

a)

polarizing light microscopy and infrared spectroscopy.

b)

polarizing light spectroscopy and infrared microscopy.

c)

heat and light.

d)

None of these choices.

114.

Fibers are classified as either:

a)

natural fibers or synthetic fibers.

b)

polymers or synthetic fibers.

c)

acrylic fibers or plant fibers.

d)

olefins or synthetic fibers.

115.

Natural fibers come from:

a)

animals.

b)

plants.

c)

minerals that are mined from the ground.

d)

All of these choices.

116.

Natural plant fibers are produced from:

a)

seeds.

b)

fruits.

c)

stems and leaves.

d)

All of these choices.

117.

All plant fibers share the common polymer that is:

a)

cellulose.

b)

protein.

c)

sulfuric acid.

d)

None of these choices.

118.

One seed fiber is:

a)

cotton.

b)

hemp.

c)

jute.

d)

coir.

119.

Fiberglass is a fiber form of:

a)

proteins.

b)

cellulose.

c)

glass.

d)

polymers.

120.

Until the nineteenth century, only plant or animal fibers were used to make clothing and textiles. Half the fibers produced today are synthetic. They are categorized as:

a)

fruit fibers and polymers.

b)

regenerated fibers and polymers.

c)

stem fibers and polymers.

d)

seed fibers and polymers.

121.

Weave patterns have names like tabby or plain, twill and ___________.

a)

abaca

b)

linen

c)

thread count

d)

satin

122.

The simplest weave pattern is the plain, or ____________, weave.

a)

abaca

b)

linen

c)

thread count

d)

satin

e)

tabby or plain

123.

The number of threads that are packed together for any given amount of fabric is known as ___________.

a)

abaca

b)

linen

c)

thread count

d)

satin

e)

tabby

124.

Manila is a fiber extracted from the leaves of _________, a relative of the banana tree.

a)

abaca

b)

linen

c)

thread count

d)

satin

e)

tabby

125.

Flax is the most common stem fiber, and is most commonly found in the textile, ______.

a)

abaca

b)

linen

c)

thread count

d)

satin

e)

tabby

126.

A very thin yarn is called a

a)

textile

b)

thread

c)

twill

d)

tree

127.
A fiber made from goat hair is called...
a)
Cashmere
b)
Sisal
c)
Coir
d)
Angora
128.
A fiber made from rabbit hair is called...
a)
Cashmere
b)
Sisal
c)
Silk
d)
Angora
129.
The first man-made fiber, also the most common synthetic fiber is...
a)
Rayon
b)
Acetate
c)
Polyester
d)
Acrylic
130.
An inexpensive synthetic fiber which tends to ball easily is...
a)
Rayon
b)
Nylon
c)
Polyester
d)
Acrylic
131.
Sisal comes from what part of a plant?
a)
Seed
b)
Fruit
c)
Stem
d)
Leaf
132.
These fibers can deteriorate in bright sun.
a)
Synthetic
b)
Natural
133.
Fiberglass is considered this type of fiber.
a)
Synthetic
b)
Natural
134.
Which of the following are NOT considered mineral fibers?
a)
Rayon
b)
Fiberglass
c)
All of the above are mineral fibers
d)
Asbestos
135.
This weave pattern results in shiny fabric with little friction...
a)
Twill
b)
Plain
c)
Satin
d)
Basket
136.

What type of weave pattern is shown?

a)

Plain

b)

Twill

c)

Satin

d)

Leno

137.

What type of weave pattern is shown?

a)

Plain

b)

Basket

c)

Satin

d)

Leno

138.

What fiber smells like burning hair when burned?

a)

cotton

b)

jute

c)

silk

d)

wool

139.

Which of the following is a manufactured fiber?

a)

Acetate

b)

Mohair

c)

Linen

d)

Cotton

140.
The protein that makes up hair is called _____
a)
ninhydrin
b)
pigments 
c)
medulla
d)
keratin
141.

Evidence that identifies a group of people is called

a)

Trace Evidence

b)

Individual Evidence

c)

Class Evidence

d)

Direct Evidence

142.

If a fingerprint matches an exact person, this evidence would be classified as:

a)

Class Evidence

b)

Individual Evidence

c)

Direct Evidence

d)

Circumstantial Evidence

143.

Which of the following members of the crime scene team has the job of interviewing witnesses?

a)

the forensic scientists

b)

the detectives

c)

the specialists

d)

the crime scene investigators

144.

Select all that apply!

Direct evidence includes:

a)

First-hand observations

b)

Second-hand observations

c)

Circumstantial evidence

d)

Recordnings, tapings, or photographic evidence

145.

A person's DNA found at the scene of a crime is an example of:

a)

Direct Evidence

b)

Blood

c)

Physical Evidence

d)

Biological Evidence

146.

Who is usually the first to arrive at the crime scene?

a)

Detectives

b)

Police Officers

c)

Medical Examiners

d)

Forensic Psychologists

147.

At the crime scene, whose job is it to be taking pictures?

a)

Detectives

b)

Police Officers

c)

Medical Examiners

d)

Crime Scene Investigators

148.

Whose job is it to secure the crime scene?

a)

Detectives

b)

Police Officers

c)

Medical Examiners

d)

Firefighters & EMTs

149.

After Securing the Scene, what does the crime scene investigation team have to do next? (a)  

150.

Which method of searching is this?

a)

Grid

b)

Row-by-row

c)

Linear

d)

Zone/Quadrant

151.

Which method of searching is this?

a)

Grid

b)

Linear

c)

Row-by-row

d)

Zone/Quadrant

152.

Why is it important for the first step of any investigation to be to secure the scene? Answer with at least 2 REASONS!

4 lines
153.

Fill in the blank: Crime scene investigators (a)   physical evidence.

154.

Fill in the blank:

Glass fragments are an example of (a)   evidence.

155.

The (a)   crime scene is the location where the crime took place.

156.

The (a)   crime scene is a location where the crime did not take place, but where evidence could still be found.

157.

When sketching the scene, why do you think it is important to include things like doors, windows, and large fences?

4 lines
158.

Fill in the blank: Locard's Principle of Exchange says that "Every contact leaves a (a)   ".