is a fundamental principle in population genetics that describes the relationship between the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population that is not evolving. It is based on the assumptions of large population size, random mating, no mutation, no migration, and no natural selection.

is a mechanism of evolution that results from random fluctuations in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population. It occurs when the frequency of an allele changes in a population by chance, rather than by natural selection.

is the unit of study in population genetics. Specifically, ___ is a group of individuals who interbreed among themselves according to a certain system of mating and form a breeding community. These individuals share a common gene pool that is the total genic content of the group.

occurs when a small group of individuals establishes a new population, leading to a loss of genetic diversity relative to the original population.

occurs when a population experiences a dramatic reduction in size, leading to a loss of genetic diversity due to random fluctuations in allele frequencies.

is a process in which the genetic information of an organism changes due to errors that occur during DNA replication, recombination, or repair. It is one of the primary sources of genetic variation, which is the raw material for evolution

also known as migration, is the transfer of genes (alleles) from one population to another. It occurs when individuals or gametes (reproductive cells) move between populations and interbreed with members of the new population.

the combination of alleles, situated on corresponding chromosomes, that determines a specific trait of an individual, such as “Aa” or “aa”.

the appearance of an organism based on a multifactorial combination of genetic traits and environmental factors.

is the process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population over time due to differences in survival and reproduction rates. It is one of the key mechanisms of evolution and is driven by the environment and the interactions between organisms and their surroundings.

is the process by which humans selectively breed plants or animals for specific traits. It is a form of selection that is driven by human choice rather than natural selection pressures.

Trait that has evolved through natural selection to increase the fitness of an organism in its environment. Exaptation is a trait that evolved for one purpose but has been co-opted for different function.

-The process of two closely related parents, or close relatives, who share very similar alleles. Two different species are involved.

-          Increase the amount of homozygous alleles.

-          One species involved

-          Alleles of the offspring are very similar to parents.

-          High probability of genetic mutation.

The process of crossing genetically different individuals to produce offspring.

-          Increase the heterozygous alleles

-          Two different species are involved

-          Alleles of offspring are much different from their parents.

-          Less probability of genetic mutation.

is a type of natural selection in which individuals with intermediate traits have higher fitness and are more likely to survive and reproduce. This leads to a reduction in the variation of the trait in the population over time, as individuals with extreme traits have lower fitness and are less likely to survive and reproduce.

is a type of natural selection in which individuals with one extreme of a trait have higher fitness and are more likely to survive and reproduce. This leads to a shift in the frequency of the trait in the population over time, as individuals with the favored trait become more common

is a type of natural selection that arises from competition for mates, in which individuals with certain traits have higher mating success and reproductive fitness. Unlike other forms of natural selection, which are driven by survival and adaptation to the environment, sexual selection is driven by the ability to attract mates.

is a type of natural selection in which individuals with extreme traits at both ends of a trait distribution have higher fitness and are more likely to survive and reproduce, while individuals with intermediate traits have lower fitness. This can lead to a bimodal distribution of traits in the population, with two distinct peaks representing the extreme traits.

All species have a common origin, and they may change through time.

also known as creationism, is a religious or philosophical belief that proposes that all species of living organisms, including humans, were created by a divine or supernatural force, rather than evolving from a common ancestor through natural processes.

is a scientific explanation for the diversity of life on Earth. It proposes that all living things share a common ancestor and have evolved over time through a process of descent with modification. This process is driven by natural selection, which favors individuals with advantageous traits that allow them to survive and reproduce more effectively than others.

also known as Lamarckism, is an outdated scientific theory that was proposed by the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Lamarckism proposed that organisms can acquire new traits during their lifetime through use or disuse of certain organs, and that these acquired traits can be passed down to their offspring, leading to evolution.

is the study of the similarities and differences in the anatomy (structure) of different species of animals. By comparing the anatomy of different animals, scientists can gain insight into the evolutionary relationships between different groups of organisms and the processes that have led to the diversity of life on Earth.

the study of the similarities and differences in the embryos of different species. Similarities in embryos are likely to be evidence of common ancestry.

are body parts or organs that have lost their original function through the process of evolution. These structures may have had an important function in the past, but over time they have become less and less useful, and eventually lost their function altogether.

are features or traits that reappear in an organism after being absent for several generations due to the process of evolution. Atavistic structures are sometimes also referred to as "throwback" features, because they represent a return to an earlier ancestral form.

- Another form of evidence of evolution is the convergence of forms in organisms that share similar environments

- can also occur in response to ecological niches, such as in the evolution of burrowing animals like moles and armadillos, which have similar adaptations for digging underground.

is the process whereby groups from the same common ancestor evolve and accumulate differences, resulting in the formation of new species. Divergent evolution is the process by which a common ancestral species evolves into two or more distinct species over time, as they adapt to different environmental conditions or ecological niches. This results in increasing differences in physical and behavioral traits between the diverging lineages.

refers to the variety of life on Earth, including the number of species, their genetic diversity, and the ecosystems they inhabit. Evolutionary biology helps us understand how this biodiversity has emerged and how it is maintained over time.

are traits that have evolved in response to selective pressures in an organism's environment. These can be physical features, behaviors, or physiological processes that allow an organism to survive and reproduce in its particular ecological niche.

●     is the study of the evolutionary relationships between different species or groups of organisms. By analyzing the similarities and differences in their genetic and morphological traits, scientists can construct evolutionary trees that show how different lineages of organisms have diverged and evolved over time.

also explores the different mechanisms that drive evolutionary change, including natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. These processes can shape the diversity of traits within and between populations, leading to the emergence of new species and the extinction of others.

is a diagram that illustrates the evolutionary relationships between different species of organisms. It shows how all living organisms are related through a common ancestor and how they have diversified over time through the processes of evolution and natural selection.

, in a broad sense the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms—i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis (“arrangement”) and nomos (“law”). 

is the most common type of symmetry observed in animals. It refers to the arrangement of body parts or structures in a way that creates a mirror image when divided down the middle.

refers to the absence of any kind of symmetry in an animal. Asymmetry is rare in animals, but is observed in some types of sponges and other primitive animals. These animals lack a defined body plan or structure and may have irregular shapes or no recognizable pattern of body parts.

is less common than bilateral symmetry and is typically observed in animals that are sessile or slow-moving, such as jellyfish, sea anemones, and starfish. In animals with radial symmetry, body parts or structures are arranged around a central axis, creating multiple planes of symmetry. This allows the animal to detect and respond to stimuli from any direction.

are a diverse group of warm-blooded animals that are distinguished by several key characteristics, including having hair or fur, producing milk to feed their young, and having specialized teeth for different types of feeding.

are one of the most diverse and ancient groups of vertebrates, with a fossil record that dates back more than 500 million years.

●     are a group of tetrapod vertebrates that includes reptiles, birds, and mammals. The evolution of amniotes is marked by several key innovations that allowed them to colonize a variety of environments and adapt to different ecological niches.

are a major group of animals that includes a diverse array of species, including chordates (vertebrates and their close relatives), echinoderms (such as sea stars and sea urchins), and hemichordates (such as acorn worms).

refers to the genetic heritage passed down by our biological parents. It's why we look like them! More specifically, it is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next. These traits can be physical, such as eye colour, blood type or a disease, or behavioural.

was an Austrian scientist, teacher, and Augustinian prelate who lived in the 1800s. He experimented on garden pea hybrids while living at a monastery and is known as the father of modern genetics.

The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by ___ marked a milestone in the history of science and gave rise to modern molecular biology, which is largely concerned with understanding how genes control the chemical processes within

are structures found in the center (nucleus) of cells that carry long pieces of DNA. DNA is the material that holds genes. It is the building block of the human body.

Both gene fusions and chromosomal fusions can have significant effects on gene expression, leading to changes in cellular processes and potentially contributing to the development of genetic diseases. These mutations are important to study in order to understand the underlying mechanisms of disease and to develop new therapies that target specific genetic abnormalities

is a type of genetic mutation that results from the addition or deletion of nucleotides in a DNA sequence that are not in multiples of three. This causes a shift in the reading frame of the gene, which can alter the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene and lead to a nonfunctional or partially functional protein.

is a type of point mutation in DNA that involves the substitution of a purine (adenine or guanine) nucleotide with a pyrimidine (thymine or cytosine) nucleotide, or vice versa. In other words, a transversion mutation involves the exchange of a nitrogenous base of one chemical class for a nitrogenous base of the other chemical class.

is a type of point mutation that involves the replacement of one purine or pyrimidine with another purine or pyrimidine within a DNA sequence. These mutations can have various effects on protein function, and can be caused by spontaneous mutations, exposure to mutagens, or inherited from one or both parents.

Chemicals that can alter DNA structure or interfere with DNA replication, such as nitrous acid, benzene, or aflatoxins.

v  Ionizing radiation (such as X-rays or gamma rays) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation can cause DNA damage and mutations.

Certain viruses or bacteria can integrate their DNA into the host cell's genome, leading to mutations.

These include factors such as pollutants, pesticides, and heavy metals that can damage DNA and lead to mutations

Basic unit of geologic time scale

Geologic subdivisions

When periods are compacted together to their characteristics

grouped, longest geologic subdivision

relies on the relative amount of the parent and daughter isotope

fixed and known value

constant and predictable

used for how old the meteorites

contain rubidium

contain uranium

-date minerals that contain potassium

-use to determine the age of organic materials

scientific method used to determine the series of an event

entrapment, preserved wholly

layer of seds deposited above the tracks

more than one consecutive footfall